International & Regional
Organizations









Dr Khalil Hussein
Professor at Lebanese University
Faculty of Law




Beirut
2006



Contents
Introduction
International & Regional Organizations
Part 1
Global Organizations
Chapter 1 League of Nations
Chapter 2 United Nations
Chapter 3 The specialized agencies of the United Nations
Part 2
Europe Organizations
Chapter 4 European Union
Chapter 5 Council of Europe
Part 3
Assia Organizations
Chapter 6 Association of south east Asian nations
Chapter 7 South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
Pqrt 4
Africa Organizations
Chapter 8 The African Union
Chapter 9 The Southern African Development Community
Part 5
Eurasian Organizations
Chapter 10 Commonwealth of Independent States
Chapter 11 Shanghai Cooperation Organization
Chapter 12 Eurasian Economic Community
Part 6
Western hemisphere organization
Chapter 13 North American Free Trade Agreement
Chapter 14 Organization of American States
Chapter 15 South American Community of Nations
Part 7
Arab organization
Chapter 16 arab league
Chapter 17 Cooperation Council for the Arab States
of the Gulf
Part 8
Various criteria
Chapter 18 Commonwealth of Nations
Chapter 19 La Francophonie
Chapter 20 Non-Aligned Movement
Chapter 21 Organization of the Islamic Conference
Chapter 22 Latin Union
Part 9
Pacific organizations
Chapter 23 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
Chapter 24 Pacific Islands Forum
















Introduction
International & Regional Organizations
An international organization is an organization of international scope or character. There are two main types of international organizations:
- international intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), whose members are sovereign states or other intergovernmental organizations (like the European Union and the WTO).
- and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), which are private organizations.
Generally and correctly used, the term international organization is used to mean international governmental organizations only.
Legal nature
Legally speaking, an international organization must be established by a treaty providing it with legal recognition. International organizations so established are subjects of international law, capable of entering into agreements among themselves or with states. Thus international organizations in a legal sense are distinguished from mere groupings of states, such as the G-8 and the G-77, neither of which have been founded by treaty, though in non-legal contexts these are sometimes referred to as international organizations as well.
International organizations must also be distinguished from treaties; while all international organizations are founded on a treaty, many treaties (e.g., the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)) do not establish an international organization and rely purely on the parties for their administration.
Membership and function
International organizations differ in function, membership and membership criteria. Membership of some organizations (global organizations) is open to all the nations of the world. This category includes the United Nations and its specialized agencies and the World Trade Organization. Other organizations are only open to members from a particular region or continent of the world, like European Union, African Union, ASEAN and so on.
Finally, some organizations base their membership on other criteria: cultural or historical links (the Commonwealth of Nations, La Francophonie, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries), level of economic development or type of economy (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC)), or religion (Organization of the Islamic Conference).
Were it to come about, the ultimate international organization would be a Federal World Government.
In the nineteenth century, France was the fons et origo of many international organizations: This means that much of the driving force to form such bodies (such as those which maintain the SI (metric system)) came from the French, and that their headquarters is in France, often in Paris. Under the Third Republic, the International Exposition of 1878 in that city held a great number of meetings of such international organizations - as opposed to the preceding regimes. The motivation was that to keep France a republic and not slip back into either a monarchist or Bonapartist regime, the republicans would underscore their inheritance of the crusading nature of the French Revolution against feudal cultural remnants within France, which had been generalized to the rest of feudal Europe, eventually to the world. Some conclude from this example that internationalism often has national origins, at the difference of globalism.
Examples of organizations
Global organizations: United Nations, its specialized agencies, and associated organizations, Interpol,International Hydrographic Organization, World Trade Organization ,Universal Postal Union
Regional organizations : Organizations bringing together almost all the countries in their respective continents. Russia is member of both the Council of Europe and the Asian Cooperation Dialogue.
Europe:European Union (EU), Council of Europe European Free Trade Association (EFTA), European Space Agency (ESA), European Patent Organisation
Asia : Asian Cooperation Dialogue (ACD) ,Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) ,South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) ,Gulf Cooperation Council .
Eurasia:Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) .Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) .Eurasian Economic Community ,Central Asian Cooperation Organization
Africa:African Union ,Conseil de l'Entente ,Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Southern African Development Community (SADC) ,Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) ,Arab Maghreb Union
Western Hemisphere:Organization of American States (OAS) ,South American Community of Nations ,Mercosur ,Andean Community ,Caribbean Community (CARICOM) ,Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) ,Central American Parliament ,Rio Group ,NAFTA.
Trans-atlantic:North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) ,Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
Pacific:Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat of the Pacific Community.
Organizations with various membership criteria,Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) ,Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC) ,Commonwealth of Nations La Francophonie, ,Comunidade dos países de língua portuguesa (CPLP) ,Organization of Ibero-American States , Non-Aligned Movement ,Arab League Organization of the Islamic Conference.
Financial international organizations :International Monetary Fund (IMF) ,World Bank Group.

PART 1
Global Organizations

Chapter 1
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an international organization founded after the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. The League's goals included disarmament; preventing war through collective security; settling disputes between countries through negotiation and diplomacy; and improving global welfare. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years. The old philosophy, growing out of the Congress of Vienna (1815), saw Europe as a shifting map of alliances among nation-states, creating a balance of power maintained by strong armies and secret agreements. Under the new philosophy, the League was a government of governments, with the role of settling disputes between individual nations in an open and legalist forum. The impetus for the founding of the League came from Democratic U.S. President Woodrow Wilson although the United States never joined the League of Nations.
The League lacked an armed force of its own and so depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were often very reluctant to do. After a number of notable successes and some early failures, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis Powers in the 1930s. The onset of the Second World War made it clear that the League had failed in its primary purpose to avoid any future world war. The United Nations effectively replaced it after World War II and inherited a number of agencies and organizations founded by the League.
Origins
The concept of a peaceful community of nations had previously been described in Immanuel Kant’s Perpetual Peace. The idea of the actual League of Nations appears to have originated with British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey, and it was enthusiastically adopted by the Democratic U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and his advisor Colonel Edward M. House as a means of avoiding bloodshed like that of World War I. The creation of the League was a centrepiece of Wilson's Fourteen Points for Peace, specifically the final point: "A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike".
The Paris Peace Conference accepted the proposal to create the League of Nations (French: Société des Nations, German: Völkerbund) on January 25, 1919. The Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on June 28, 1919. Initially, the Charter was signed by 44 states, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict. Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919, the United States neither ratified the Charter nor joined the League due to opposition from isolationists in the U.S. Senate, especially influential Republican leader Henry Cabot Lodge, together with Wilson's refusal to compromise.
The League held its first meeting in London on 10 January 1920. Its first action was to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, officially ending World War I. The headquarters of the League moved to Geneva on November 1, 1920, where the first general assembly of the League was held on November 15, 1920 with representatives from 41 nations in attendance.
Symbols
The League of Nations did not have an official flag or logo. Proposals for adopting an official symbol were made during the League's beginning in 1920, but the member states never reached agreement. However, League of Nations organisations used varying logos and flags (or none at all) in their own operations. An international contest was held in 1929 to find a design, which again failed to produce a symbol. One of the reasons for this failure may have been the fear by the member states that the power of the supranational organisation might supersede them.
Finally, in 1939, a semi-official emblem emerged: two five-pointed stars within a blue pentagon. The pentagon and the five-pointed stars were supposed to symbolise the five continents and the five races of mankind. In a bow on top and at the bottom, the flag had the names in English (League of Nations) and French (Société des Nations). This flag was used on the building of the New York World's Fair in 1939 and 1940.
Languages
The official languages of the League of Nations were French, English and Spanish (from 1920). In the early 1920s, there was a proposal for the League to accept Esperanto as their working language. Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux. Hanotaux did not like how the French language was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat. Two years later the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula.
Structure
The League had three principal organs: a secretariat (headed by the General Secretary and based in Geneva), a Council and an Assembly, and many Agencies and Commissions. Authorisation for any action required both a unanimous vote by the Council and a majority vote in the Assembly.
Secretariat
The staff of the League's secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the civil service for the League.
Over the life of the League from 1920–1946, the three Secretaries General were:Sir James Eric Drummond, 16th Earl of Perth (U.K.) (1920-1933) Joseph Avenol (France) (1933-1940) Seán Lester (Ireland) (1940-1946).
The General Secretary wrote annual reports on the work of the League.
Council
The League Council had the authority to deal with any matter affecting world peace. The Council began with four permanent members (Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and four non-permanent members elected by the Assembly every three years. The first four non-permanent members were Belgium, Brazil, Greece and Spain. United States was meant to be the fifth permanent member, but the United States Senate was dominated by the Republican Party after the 1918 election and voted on March 19, 1920 against the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles, so the fifth permanent seat was taken by China. The composition and the number of members of the Council subsequently, with the number the number of non-permanent members increasing to six on September 22, 1922 and to nine on September 8, 1926. Germany joined the League and became a sixth permanent member of the Council on September 8, 1926, taking the Council to a total of fifteen members. With the departure of Germany and Japan from the League, their places were taken by new non-permanent members.
The Council met in ordinary sessions four times a year, and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 public sessions were held between 1920 and 1939.
Assembly
Each member was represented and had one vote in the League Assembly. Individual member states did not always have representatives in Geneva. The Assembly held its sessions once a year in September.
Other bodies
The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems. These were the Disarmament Commission, the Health Organisation, the International Labour Organization, the Mandates Commission, the Permanent Central Opium Board, the Commission for Refugees, and the Slavery Commission. While the League itself is generally branded a failure, several of its Agencies and Commissions had successes within their respective mandates.
Disarmament Commission
The Commission obtained initial agreement by France, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom to limit the size of their navies. However, the UK refused to sign a 1923 disarmament treaty, and the Kellogg-Briand Pact, facilitated by the commission in 1928, failed in its objective of outlawing war. Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military buildup during the 1930s by Italy, Germany and Japan.
Health Organization
This body focused on ending leprosy and malaria, the latter by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. The Health Organization also succeeded in preventing an epidemic of typhus from spreading throughout Europe due to its early intervention in the Soviet Union.
Mandates Commission
The Commission supervised League of Nations Mandates, and also organised plebiscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join, most notably the plebiscite in Saarland in 1935.
International Labour Organization
This body was led by Albert Thomas. It successfully banned the addition of lead to paint, and convinced several countries to adopt an eight-hour work day and forty-eight-hour working week. It also worked to end child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen.
Permanent Central Opium Board
The Board was established to supervise the statistical control system introduced by the second International Opium Convention that mediated the production, manufacture, trade and retail of opium and its by-products. The Board also established a system of import certificates and export authorizations for the legal international trade in narcotics.
Commission for Refugees
Led by Fridtjof Nansen, the Commission oversaw the repatriation and, when necessary the resettlement, of 400,000 refugees and ex-prisoners of war, most of whom were stranded in Russia at the end of World War I. It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to deal with a refugee crisis in that country and to help prevent disease and hunger. It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for stateless peoples.
Slavery Commission
The Commission sought to eradicate slavery from the world, and fought forced prostitution and drug trafficking, particularly in opium. It succeeded in gaining the emancipation of 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone and organised raids against slave traders in its efforts to stop the practice of forced labour in Africa. It also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers in Tanganyika from 55% to 4%. In other parts of the world, the Commission kept records on slavery, prostitution and drug trafficking in an attempt to monitor those issues.
Several of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War. In addition to the International Labour Organisation, the Permanent Court of International Justice became a UN institution as the International Court of Justice, and the Health Organisation was restructured as the World Health Organisation.
Mandates
League of Nations Mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. These territories were former colonies of the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire that were placed under the supervision of the League following World War I. There were three Mandate classifications:
An "A" Mandate
This was a territory which "had reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised, subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a "Mandatory" until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory." These were mainly parts of the old Ottoman Empire.
A "B" Mandate
This was a territory which "was at such a stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee:
- Freedom of conscience and religion,
- The maintenance of public order and morals,
- Prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic,
- The prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than political purposes and the defence of territory,
- Equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other Members of the League.",
A "C" Mandate
This was a territory "which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory."
The territories were governed by "Mandatory Powers", such as the UK in the case of the Mandate of Palestine and the Union of South Africa in the case of South-West Africa, until the territories were deemed capable of self-government. There were fourteen mandate territories divided up among the six Mandatory Powers of the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia and Japan. In practice, the Mandatory Territories were treated as colonies and were regarded by critics as spoils of war. With the exception of Iraq, which joined the League on October 3, 1932, these territories did not begin to gain their independence until after the Second World War, a process that did not end until 1990. Following the demise of the League, most of the remaining mandates became United Nations Trust Territories.
In addition to the Mandates, the League itself governed the Saarland for 15 years, before it was returned to Germany following a plebiscite, and the free city of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) from 15 November 1920 to 1 September 1939.
Successes
The League is generally considered to have failed in its mission to achieve disarmament, prevent war, settle disputes through diplomacy, and improve global welfare. However, it achieved significant successes in a number of areas.
Åland Islands
Åland is a collection of around 6,500 islands mid-way between Sweden and Finland. The islands are exclusively Swedish-speaking, but Finland had sovereignty in the early 1900s. During the period from 1917 onwards, most residents wished the islands to become part of Sweden; Finland, however, did not wish to cede the islands. The Swedish government raised the issue with the League in 1921. After close consideration, the League determined that the islands should remain a part of Finland, but be governed autonomously, averting a potential war.
Albania
The border between Albania and Yugoslavia remained in dispute after the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, and Yugoslavian forces occupied some Albanian territory. After clashes with Albanian tribesmen, the Yugoslav forces invaded further. The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region. The commission found in favour of Albania, and the Yugoslav forces withdrew in 1921, albeit under protest. War was again prevented.
Upper Silesia
The Treaty of Versailles had ordered a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should be part of Germany or Poland. In the background, strong-arm tactics and discrimination against Poles led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). In the plebiscite, roughly 59.6% (around 500,000) of the votes were cast for joining Germany, and this result led to the Third Silesian Uprising in 1921. The League was asked to settle the matter. In 1922, a six-week investigation found that the land should be split; the decision was accepted by both countries and by the majority of Upper Silesians.
Memel
The port city of Memel (now Klaipėda) and the surrounding area was placed under League control after the end of the World War I and was governed by a French general for three years. However, the population was mostly Lithuanian, and the Lithuanian government placed a claim to the territory, with Lithuanian forces invading in 1923. The League chose to cede the land around Memel to Lithuania, but declared the port should remain an international zone; Lithuania agreed. While the decision could be seen as a failure (in that the League reacted passively to the use of force), the settlement of the issue without significant bloodshed was a point in the League's favour.
Greece and Bulgaria
After an incident between sentries on the border between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925, Greek troops invaded their neighbour. Bulgaria ordered its troops to provide only token resistance, trusting the League to settle the dispute. The League did indeed condemn the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria. Greece complied, but complained about the disparity between their treatment and that of Italy.
Saar
Saar was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate that was established and placed under League control after the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule, to determine whether the region should belong to Germany or France. 90.3% of votes cast were in favour of becoming part of Germany in that 1935 referendum, and it became part of Germany again.
Mosul
The League successfully resolved a dispute between Iraq and Turkey over the control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926. According to the UK, which was awarded a League of Nations A-mandate over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A three person League of Nations committee was sent to the region in 1924 to study the case and in 1925 recommended the region to be connected to Iraq, under the condition that the UK would hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to assure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and it decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted the League of Nations arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, it rejected the League's decision. Nonetheless, the UK, Iraq and Turkey made a treaty on 5 June 1926, that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq.
Other successes
The League also worked to combat the international trade in opium and sexual slavery and helped alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period to 1926. One of its innovations in this area was its 1922 introduction of the Nansen passport, an internationally recognised identity card for stateless refugees. Many of the League's successes were accomplished by its various Agencies and Commissions.
General weaknesses
The League did not, in the long term, succeed. The outbreak of World War II was the immediate cause of the League's demise, but there was also a variety of other, more fundamental, flaws.
The League, like the modern United Nations, lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very reluctant to do. Economic sanctions, which were the most severe measure the League could implement short of military action, were difficult to enforce and had no great impact on the target country, because they could simply trade with those outside the League. The problem is exemplified in the following passage, taken from The Essential Facts About the League of Nations, a handbook published in Geneva in 1939 : "As regards the military sanctions provided for in paragraph 2 of Article 16, there is no legal obligation to apply them… there may be a political and moral duty incumbent on states… but, once again, there is no obligation on them."
The League's two most important members, the United Kingdom and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. So soon after World War I, the populations and governments of the two countries were pacifist. The British Conservatives were especially tepid on the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of the organization. Ultimately, the UK and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Adolf Hitler.
Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their time as part of the League was short. One key weakness of the League was that the United States never joined, which took away much of the League's potential power. Even though President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League's formation, the United States Senate voted on January 19, 1919 not to join the League. Wilson's stroke and protracted convalescence prevented him from pursuing the issue.
The League also further weakened when the fascist powers left in the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council, but saw the League as Euro-centric and withdrew in 1932. Italy also began as a permanent member of the Council but withdrew in 1937. The League had accepted Germany as a member in 1926, deeming it a "peace-loving country", but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933. Another major power, the Bolshevik Soviet Union, was only a member from 1934, when it joined to antagonise Germany (which had left the year before), to December 14, 1939, when it was expelled for aggression against Finland.
The League's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. The League required a unanimous vote of its nine (later fifteen) member Council to enact a resolution, so conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions. Some decisions also required unanimous consent of the Assembly; that is, agreement by every member of the League.
Another important weakness of the League was that it tried to represent all nations, but most members protected their own national interests and were not committed to the League or its goals. The reluctance of all League members to use the option of military action showed this to the full. If the League had shown more resolve initially, countries, governments and dictators may have been more wary of risking its wrath in later years. These failings were, in part, among the reasons for the outbreak of World War II.
Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for the United Kingdom and France (and other members) whilst at the same time advocating collective security meant that the League was unwittingly depriving itself of the only forceful means by which its authority would be upheld. This was because if the League was to force countries to abide by international law it would primarily be the Royal Navy and the French Army which would do the fighting. Futhermore, the United Kingdom and France were not rich enough to enforce international law across the globe, even if they wished to do so. For its members League obligations meant there was a danger that states would get drawn into international disputes which did not directly affect their respective national interests.
On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war of conquest against Abyssinia, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin told the House of Commons that collective security "failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions.... [T]he real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war.... [I]f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential part of collective security." It was an accurate assessment and a lesson which clearly was applied in the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, which stood as the League's successor insofar as its role as guarantor of the security of Western Europe was concerned.
Specific failures
The general weaknesses of the League are illustrated by its specific failures.
Cieszyn
Cieszyn (German Teschen, Czech Těšín) is a region between Poland and today's Czech Republic, important for its coal mines. Czechoslovakian troops moved to Cieszyn in 1919 to take over control of the region while Poland was defending itself from invasion of Bolshevik Russia. The League intervened, deciding that Poland should take control of most of the town, but that Czechoslovakia should take one of the town's suburbs, which contained the most valuable coal mines and the only railroad connecting Czech lands and Slovakia. The city was divided into Polish Cieszyn and Czech Český Těšín. Poland refused to accept this decision; although there was no further violence, the diplomatic dispute continued for another 20 years.
Vilna
After World War I, Poland and Lithuania both regained the independence that they had lost during the partitions of Poland in 1795. Though both countries shared centuries of common history in the Polish-Lithuanian Union and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, rising Lithuanian nationalism prevented the recreation of the former federated state. The city of Vilna (Lithuanian Vilnius, Polish Wilno) was made the capital of Lithuania, despite being mainly Polish in ethnicity.
During the Polish-Soviet War in 1920, a Polish army took control of the city. Despite the Poles' claim to the city, the League chose to ask Poland to withdraw: the Poles did not. The city and its surroundings were proclaimed a separate state of Central Lithuania and on 20 February 1922 the local parliament passed the Unification Act and the city was incorporated into Poland as the capital of the Wilno Voivodship. Theoretically, British and French troops could have been asked to enforce the League's decision; however, France did not wish to antagonise Poland, which was seen as a possible ally in a future war against Germany, while the United Kingdom was not prepared to act alone. Both the United Kingdom and France also wished to have Poland as a 'buffer zone' between Europe and the possible threat from Communist Russia. Eventually, the League accepted Wilno as a Polish town on March 15, 1923. Thus the Poles were able to keep it until Soviet invasion in 1939.
Lithuanian authorities declined to accept the Polish authority over Wilno and treated it as a constitutional capital. It wasn't until the 1938 ultimatum, when Lithuania resolved diplomatic relations with Poland and thus de facto accepted the borders of its neighbour.
Ruhr
Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to pay reparations. They could pay in money or in goods at a set value; however, in 1922 Germany was not able to make its payment. The next year, France and Belgium chose to act upon this, and invaded the industrial heartland of Germany, the Ruhr, despite this being in direct contravention of the League's rules. With France being a major League member, and the United Kingdom hesitant to oppose its close ally, nothing was done in the League despite the clear breach of League rules. This set a significant precedent – the League rarely acted against major powers, and occasionally broke its own rules.
Corfu
One major boundary settlement that remained to be made after World War I was that between Greece and Albania. The Conference of Ambassadors, a de facto body of the League, was asked to settle the issue. The Council appointed Italian general Enrico Tellini to oversee this. While examining the Greek side of the border, Tellini and his staff were murdered. Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed, and demanded the Greeks pay reparations and execute the murderers. The Greeks, however, did not actually know who the murderers were.
On 31 August 1923, Italian forces occupied the island of Corfu, part of Greece, with fifteen people being killed. Initially, the League condemned Mussolini's invasion, but also recommended Greece pay compensation, to be held by the League until Tellini's killers were found. Mussolini, though he initially agreed to the League's terms, set about trying to change them. By working on the Conference of Ambassadors, he managed to make the League change its decision. Greece was forced to apologise and compensation was to be paid directly and immediately. Mussolini was able to leave Corfu in triumph. By bowing to the pressure of a large country, the League again set a dangerous and damaging example. This was one of the league's major failures.
Manchuria Crisis
The Manchuria Crisis was one of the League's major setbacks and acted as the catalyst for Japan's withdrawal from the organisation. In the Mukden Incident, the Japanese held control of the South Manchurian Railway in the Chinese region of Manchuria. They claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway, which was a major trade route between the two countries in September 1931. (In fact, the sabotage had been committed by Japanese Army personnel bent on establishing a pretext for conquest.) In retaliation, the Japanese army, acting contrary to the civilian government's orders, occupied the entire province of Manchuria, which they named Manchukuo. In 1932, Japanese air and sea forces bombarded the Chinese city of Shanghai and a short war broke out.
The Chinese government asked the League for help, but the long voyage around the world for League officials to investigate the matter themselves delayed matters. When they arrived, the officials were confronted with Chinese assertions that the Japanese had invaded unlawfully, while the Japanese claimed they were acting to keep peace in the area. Despite Japan's high standing in the League, the Lytton Report declared Japan to be in the wrong and demanded Manchuria be returned to the Chinese. However, before the report was voted upon by the Assembly, Japan announced intentions to invade more of China. When the report passed 42-1 in the Assembly (only Japan voted against), Japan left the League. Economic sanctions were powerless, since Japan's major trading partner was the U.S., which was not a member of the League and declined to cooperate with it out of fear of war. The United Kingdom, concerned about the security of its large commerical interests in China as well as its Asian colonies, was reluctant to anger Japan over a region that was not central to its own interests. Once again, the League bowed to the more powerful, and showed its weakness.
Chaco War
The League failed to prevent the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay in 1932 over the arid Chaco Boreal region of South America. Although the region was sparsely populated, it gave control of the Paraguay River which would have given one of the two landlocked countries access to the Atlantic Ocean, and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932, when the Bolivian army, following the orders of President Daniel Salamanca Urey, attacked a Paraguayan garrison at Vanguardia. Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did not take action when the Pan-American conference offered to mediate instead.
The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 100,000 casualties and bringing both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized control over most of the region. This was recognized in a 1938 truce by which Paraguay was awarded three-quarters of the Chaco Boreal.
Spanish Civil War
On 17 July 1936, armed conflict broke out between Spanish Republicans (the left-wing government of Spain) and Nationalists (the right-wing rebels, including most officers of the Spanish Army). Alvarez del Vayo, the Spanish minister of foreign affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend its territorial integrity and political independence. However, the League could not itself intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict. Hitler and Mussolini continued to aid General Franco’s Nationalist insurrectionists, and the Soviet Union aided the Spanish loyalists. The League did attempt to ban the intervention of foreign national volunteers.
Italian invasion of Abyssinia
Perhaps most famously, in October 1935, Benito Mussolini sent General Pietro Badoglio and 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia). The modern Italian Army easily defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians, and captured Addis Ababa in May 1936, forcing Emperor Haile Selassie to flee. The Italians used chemical weapons (mustard gas) against the Abyssinians.
The League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November 1935, but the sanctions were largely ineffective. As Stanley Baldwin, the British Prime Minister, later observed, this was ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack. On 9 October 1935, the United States (a non-League member) refused to cooperate with any League action. It had embargoed exports of arms and war material to either combatant (in accordance with its new Neutrality Act) on 5 October and later (29 February 1936) endeavored (with uncertain success) to limit exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels. The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point they were a dead letter in any event
As was the case with Manchuria, the vigor of the major powers in responding to the crisis in Abyssinia was tempered by their perception that the fate of this poor and far-off country, inhabited by non-Europeans, was not a central interest of theirs.
Axis re-armament
The League was powerless and mostly silent in the face of major events leading to World War II such as Hitler's re-militarisation of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and annexation of Austria. As with Japan, both Germany in 1933 using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext – and Italy in 1937 simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgment. The League commissioner in Danzig was unable to deal with German claims on the city, a significant contributing factor in the outbreak of World War II in 1939. The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland.
Demise and Legacy
With the onset of World War II, it was clear that the League had failed in its purpose – to avoid any future world war. During the war, neither the League's Assembly nor Council was able or willing to meet, and its secretariat in Geneva was reduced to a skeleton staff, with many offices moving to North America.
After its failure to prevent one war, it was decided to create a new body to fulfill the League's role, but to take it further. This body was to be the United Nations. Many League bodies, for instance the International Labour Organisation, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN. At a meeting of the Assembly in 1946, the League dissolved itself and its services, mandates, and property were transferred to the UN.








Chapter 2
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an international organization that describes itself as a "global association of governments facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, and social equity." It was founded in 1945 by 51 states, replacing The League of Nations. As of 2006 it consists of 191 member states, including virtually all internationally-recognized independent nations, except Vatican City (the Holy See) (which has declined membership), Palestine (whose status is still one of a de facto state, and has not yet legal declared statehood), Niue (whose foreign affairs are dealt with by the New Zealand Government) and the Republic of China (whose membership was superseded by the People's Republic of China in 1971). Palestine and the Holy See both have Permanant Observer Missions to the UN. From its headquarters in New York City, the UN's member countries and specialized agencies give guidance and decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout each year. The organization is divided into administrative bodies, including the UN General Assembly, UN Security Council, UN Economic and Social Council, UN Trusteeship Council, UN Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice, as well as counterpart bodies dealing with the governance of all other UN system agencies, such as the WHO and UNICEF. The UN's most visible public figure is the Secretary-General.
The UN was founded after the end of World War II by the victorious world powers with the hope that it would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible, by fostering an ideal of collective security. The organization's structure still reflects in some ways the circumstances of its founding; specifically, in addition to the rotating national members of the Security Council, five permanent members have veto power — the United States of America, Russia (which replaced the Soviet Union), United Kingdom, France, and the People's Republic of China (which replaced the Republic of China).
History
The term "United Nations" was coined by Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, Its first formal use was in the January 1, 1942 Declaration by the United Nations, which committed the Allies to the principles of the Atlantic Charter and pledged them not to seek a separate peace with the Axis powers. Thereafter, the Allies used the term "United Nations Fighting Forces" to refer to their alliance.
The idea for the UN was elaborated in declarations signed at the wartime Allied conferences in Moscow, Cairo and Tehran in 1943. From August to October 1944, representatives of France, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union met to elaborate the plans at the Dumbarton Oaks Estate in Washington, DC. Those and later talks produced proposals outlining the purposes of the organization, its membership and organs, and arrangements to maintain international peace and security and international economic and social cooperation. These proposals were discussed and debated by governments and citizens worldwide.
On April 25, 1945, the UN Conference on International Organizations began in San Francisco. In addition to the Governments, a number of non-governmental organizations, including Lions Clubs International, were invited to assist in drafting the charter. The 50 nations represented at the conference signed the Charter of the United Nations two months later on June 26. Poland had not been represented at the conference, but a place had been reserved for it among the original signatories, and it added its name later. The UN came into existence on October 24, 1945, after the Charter had been ratified by the five permanent members of the Security Council Republic of China, France, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and the United States and by a majority of the other 46 signatories.
Initially, the body was known as the United Nations Organization, or UNO. But by the 1950s, English speakers were referring to it as the United Nations, or UN.
Financing
The UN system is financed in two ways: assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The regular two-year budgets of the UN and its specialized agencies are funded by assessments. The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by national income statistics, along with other factors.
The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be overly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a 'ceiling' rate, setting the maximum amount any member is assessed for the regular budget. In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments to reflect current global circumstances. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%. The US is the only member that meets that ceiling, but it is in arrears with hundreds of millions of dollars. Under the scale of assessments adopted in 2000, other major contributors to the regular UN budget for 2001 are Japan (19.63%), Germany (9.82%), France (6.50%), the UK (5.57%), Italy (5.09%), Canada (2.57%), Spain (2.53%), and Brazil (2.39%).
Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget (such as UNICEF, UNDP, UNHCR, and WFP) are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments. In 2001, it is estimated that such contributions from the United States will total approximately $1.5 billion. Some of this is in the form of agricultural commodities donated for afflicted populations, but the majority is financial contributions.
Aims and activities
International conferences
The countries of the UN and its specialized agencies - the "stakeholders" of the system - give guidance and decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout each year. Governing bodies made up of member states include not only the General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, and the Security Council, but also counterpart bodies dealing with the governance of all other UN system agencies. For example, the World Health Assembly and the Executive Board oversee the work of WHO. Each year, the US Department of State accredits US delegations to more than 600 meetings of governing bodies.
When an issue is considered particularly important, the General Assembly may convene an international conference to focus global attention and build a consensus for consolidated action. High-level US delegations use these opportunities to promote US policy viewpoints and develop international agreements on future activities. Recent examples include:
- The UN Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992, led to the creation of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development to advance the conclusions reached in Agenda 21, the final text of agreements negotiated by governments at UNCED;
- The International Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo, Egypt, in September 1994, approved a programme of action to address the critical challenges and interrelationships between population and sustainable development over the next 20 years;
- The World Summit on Trade Efficiency, held in October 1994 in Columbus, Ohio, cosponsored by UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the city of Columbus, and private-sector business, focused on the use of modern information technology to expand international trade;
- The World Summit for Social Development, held in March 1995 in Copenhagen, Denmark, underscored national responsibility for sustainable development and secured high-level commitment to plans that invest in basic education, health care, and economic opportunity for all, including women and girls;
- The Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing, China, in September 1995, sought to accelerate implementation of the historic agreements reached at the Third World Conference on Women held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1985;
- The Second UN Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), convened in June 1996 in Istanbul, Turkey, considered the challenges of human settlement development and management in the 21st century.
Arms control and disarmament
The 1945 UN Charter envisaged a system of regulation that would ensure "the least diversion for armaments of the world's human and economic resources". The advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the Charter and provided immediate impetus to concepts of arms limitation and disarmament. In fact, the first resolution of the first meeting of the General Assembly (January 24, 1946) was entitled "The Establishment of a Commission to Deal with the Problems Raised by the Discovery of Atomic Energy" and called upon the commission to make specific proposals for "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction".
The UN has established several forums to address multilateral disarmament issues. The principal ones are the First Committee of the General Assembly and the UN Disarmament Commission. Items on the agenda include consideration of the possible merits of a nuclear test ban, outer-space arms control, efforts to ban chemical weapons, nuclear and conventional disarmament, nuclear-weapon-free zones, reduction of military budgets, and measures to strengthen international security.
The Conference on Disarmament is the sole forum established by the international community for the negotiation of multilateral arms control and disarmament agreements. It has 66 members representing all areas of the world, including the five major nuclear-weapon states (the People's Republic of China, France, Russia, UK and USA). While the conference is not formally a UN organization, it is linked to the UN through a personal representative of the Secretary-General; this representative serves as the secretary general of the conference. Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly often request the conference to consider specific disarmament matters. In turn, the conference annually reports its activities to the Assembly.
Peacekeeping
UN peacekeepers are sent to various regions where armed conflict has recently ceased, in order to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage the combatants from resuming hostilities, for example in East Timor until its independence in 2001. These forces are provided by member states of the UN; the UN does not maintain any independent military. All UN peacekeeping operations must be approved by the Security Council.
The founders of the UN had high hopes that it would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible, by fostering an ideal of collective security. Those hopes have not been fully realized. During the Cold War (from about 1947 until 1991), the division of the world into hostile camps made peacekeeping agreement extremely difficult. Following the end of the Cold War, there were renewed calls for the UN to become the agency for achieving world peace and co-operation, as several dozen military conflicts continue to rage around the globe. But the breakup of the Soviet Union also left the US in a unique position of global dominance, creating a variety of new challenges for the UN.

UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular scale, but including a surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. In December 2000, the UN revised the assessment rate scale for the regular budget and for peacekeeping. The peacekeeping scale is designed to be revised every six months and was projected to be near 27% in 2003. The US intends to pay peacekeeping assessments at these lower rates and has sought legislation from the US Congress to allow payment at these rates and to make payments towards arrears.
The UN maintains a series of United Nations Medals awarded to military service members who enforce UN accords. The first such decoration issued was the United Nations Service Medal, awarded to UN forces who participated in the Korean War. The NATO Medal is designed on a similar concept and both are considered international decorations instead of military decorations.
Human rights
The pursuit of human rights was a central reason for creating the UN. World War II atrocities and genocide led to a ready consensus that the new organization must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the future. An early objective was creating a legal framework for considering and acting on complaints about human rights violations.
The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights" and to take "joint and separate action" to that end. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, though not legally binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948 as a common standard of achievement for all. The Assembly regularly takes up human rights issues. The UN Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR), under ECOSOC, is the primary UN body charged with promoting human rights, primarily through investigations and offers of technical assistance. As discussed, the High Commissioner for Human Rights is the official principally responsible for all UN human rights activities (see, under "The UN Family", the section on "Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights").
The United Nations and its various agencies are central in upholding and implementing the principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A case in point is support by the UN for countries in transition to democracy. Technical assistance in providing free and fair elections, improving judicial structures, drafting constitutions, training human rights officials, and transforming armed movements into political parties have contributed significantly to democratization worldwide.
The UN is also a forum to support the right of women to participate fully in the political, economic, and social life of their countries. The UN contributes to raising consciousness of the concept of human rights through its covenants and its attention to specific abuses through its General Assembly or Security Council resolutions or ICJ rulings.
Humanitarian assistance and international development
In conjunction with other organizations, such as the Red Cross, the UN provides food, drinking water, shelter and other humanitarian services to populaces suffering from famine, displaced by war, or afflicted by other disaster. Major humanitarian arms of the UN are the World Food Programme (which helps feed more than 100 million people a year in 80 countries), the High Commissioner for Refugees with projects in over 116 countries, as well as peacekeeping projects in over 24 countries. At times, UN relief workers have been subject to attacks.
The UN is also involved in supporting development, e.g. by the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the largest multilateral source of grant technical assistance in the world. Organizations like the WHO, UNAIDS and Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria are leading institutions in the battle AIDS around the world, especially in poor countries. The UN Population Fund is a major provider of reproductive services. It has helped reduce infant and maternal mortality in 100 countries.
The UN annually publishes the Human Development Index (HDI), a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors.
The UN also runs international criminal tribunals, including the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the Special Court for Sierra Leone, and the Ad-Hoc Court for East Timor,and the Special Court for Lebanon.
Treaties and international law
The UN negotiates treaties such as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to avoid potential international disputes. Disputes over use of the oceans may be adjudicated by a special court.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the main court of the UN. Its purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The ICJ began in 1946 and continues to hear cases. Important cases include: Congo v. France, where the Democratic Republic of Congo accused France of illegally detaining former heads of state accused of war crimes; and Nicaragua v. United States, where Nicaragua accused the United States of illegally arming the Contras (this case led to the Iran-Contra affair).
The main organs
The United Nations has six main organs. Five of them — the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council and the Secretariat — are based at UN Headquarters in New York. The sixth, the International Court of Justice, is located at The Hague in the Netherlands.
1 - The General Assembly
The General Assembly Is the main deliberative organ of the United Nations. It is composed of representatives of all member states, each of which has one vote. Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority. Decisions on other questions are by simple majority.
Functions and power
Under the Charter, the functions and powers of the General Assembly include:
- to consider and make recommendations on the principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and arms regulation.
- to discuss any question relating to international peace and security and, except where a dispute or situation is being discussed by the Security Council, to make recommendations on it.
- to discuss and, with the same exception, make recommendations on any question within the scope of the Charter or affecting the powers and functions of any organ of the United Nations.
- to initiate studies and make recommendations to promote international political cooperation, the development and codification of international law, the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, and international collaboration in economic, social, cultural, educational and health fields.
- to make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of any situation, regardless of origin, which might impair friendly relations among nations.
- to receive and consider reports from the Security Council and other United Nations organs.
- to consider and approve the United Nations budget and to apportion the contributions among members.
- to elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the members of the Economic and Social Council and additional members of the Trusteeship Council (when necessary); to elect jointly with the Security Council the Judges of the International Court of Justice; and, on the recommendation of the Security Council, to appoint the Secretary-General.
Sessions
The General Assembly's regular session usually begins each year in September. Beginning with its fifty-eighth regular session (2003-2004), the Assembly opens on Tuesday of the third week in September, counting from the first week that contains at least one working day. The election of the President of the Assembly, as welll as its 21 Vice-Presidents and the Chairs persons of the Assembly's six main committees, take place at least three months before the start of the regular session. To ensure equitable geographical representation, the presidency of the Assembly rotates each year among five groups of states: African, Asian, Eastern European, Latin American and Western European and other states.
In addition, the Assembly may meet in special sessions at the request of the Security Council, of a majority of member states, or of one member if the majority of members concur. Emergency special sessions may be called within 24 hours of a request by the Security Council on the vote of any nine Council members, or by a majority of the United Nations members, or by one member if the majority of members concur.
At the beginning of each regular session, the Assembly holds a general debate, often addressed by heads of state and government, in which member states express their views on the most presssing international issues.
Main committees
Most questions are then discussed in its six main committees:
- First Committee - Disarmament and International Security.
- Second Committee - Economic and Financial
- Third Committee - Social, Humanitarian and Cultural
- Fourth Committee - Special Political and Decolonization
- Fifth Committee - Administrative and Budgetary
- Sixth Committee - Legal
Some issues are considered only in plenary meetings, while others are allocated to one of the six main committees. All issues are voted on through resolutions passed in plenary meetings, usually towards the end of the regular session, after the committees have completed their consideration of them and submitted draft resolutions to the plenary Assembly.
Voting in Committees is by a simple majority. In plenary meetings, resolutions may be adopted by acclamation, without objection or without a vote, or the vote may be recorded or taken by roll-call. While the decisions of the Assembly have no legally binding force for governments, they carry the weight of world opinion, as well as the moral authority of the world community.
The work of the United Nations year-round derives largely from the decisions of the General Assembly - that is to say, the will of the majority of the members as expressed in resolutions adopted by the Assembly. That work is carried out:
- by committees and other bodies established by the Assembly to study and report on specific issues, such as disarmament, peacekeeping, development and human rights.
- in international conferences called for by the Assembly.
- by the Secretaria of the United Nations - the Secretary-General and his staff of international civil servants.
Structure and Functions
The credentials of representatives and the names of members of the delegation of each Member State are submitted to the Secretary-General and are issued either by the Head of the State or Government or by the Minister for Foreign Affairs (Rule 27 of the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly).
A Credentials Committee is appointed at the beginning of each regular session of the General Assembly. It consists of nine members, who are appointed by the General Assembly on the proposal of the President.
The Committee is mandated to examine the credentials of representatives of Member States and to report to the General Assembly thereon (Rule 28 of the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly). Special and emergency special sessions of the General Assembly as well as conferences convened under its auspices also appoint a Credentials Committee having the same composition as that of the Credentials Committee at its most recent regular session.
2 - The Security Council
one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN). Under the United Nations Charter, the Security Council is primarily responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It is so organized as to be able to function continuously, and a representative of each of its members must be present at all times at United Nations Headquarters. On 31 January 1992, the first ever Summit Meeting of the Council was convened at Headquarters, attended by Heads of State and Government of 13 of its 15 members and by the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of the remaining two. The Council may meet elsewhere than at Headquarters; in 1972, it held a session in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and the following year in Panama City ,When a complaint concerning a threat to peace is brought before it, the Council's first action is usually to recommend to the parties to try to reach agreement by peaceful means. In some cases, the Council itself undertakes investigation and mediation. It may appoint special representatives or request the Secretary-General to do so or to use his good offices. It may set forth principles for a peaceful settlement.
When a dispute leads to fighting, the Council's first concern is to bring it to an end as soon as possible. On many occasions, the Council has issued cease-fire directives which have been instrumental in preventing wider hostilities. It also sends United Nations peace-keeping forces to help reduce tensions in troubled areas, keep opposing forces apart and create conditions of calm in which peaceful settlements may be sought. The Council may decide on enforcement measures, economic sanctions (such as trade embargoes) or collective military action.
A Member State against which preventive or enforcement action has been taken by the Security Council may be suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. A Member State which has persistently violated the principles of the Charter may be expelled from the United Nations by the Assembly on the Council's recommendation.
A State which is a Member of the United Nations but not of the Security Council may participate, without a vote, in its discussions when the Council considers that that country's interests are affected. Both Members of the United Nations and non-members, if they are parties to a dispute being considered by the Council, are invited to take part, without a vote, in the Council's discussions; the Council sets the conditions for participation by a non-member State. The Presidency of the Council rotates monthly, according to the English alphabetical listing of its member States.
the functions and powers
Under the Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council are :
- to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles and purposes of the United Nations.
- to investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction.
- to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement.
- to formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments.
- to determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to recommend what action should be taken.
- to call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the use of force to prevent or stop aggression.
- to take military action against an aggressor.
- to recommend the admission of new Members.
- to exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in "strategic areas".
- to recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General and, together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the International Court of Justice
Committees:
Standing Committees -- There are two committees at present, and each includes representatives of all Security Council member States.
- Committee of Experts on Rules of Procedure (studies and advises on rules of procedure and other technical matters)
- Committee on Admission of New Members
- Ad Hoc Committees They are established as needed, comprise all Council members and meet in closed session.
- Security Council Committee on Council meeting away from Headquarters.
- Governing Council of the United Nations Compensation Commission established by Security Council resolution 692 (1991).
- Committee established pursuant to Resolution 1373 (2001) concerning Counter-Terrorism.
Working Group on General Issues on Sanctions
Sanctions Committees, an Overview :
- Security Council Committee established by resolution 661 (1990) concerning the situation between Iraq and Kuwait.
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 748 (1992) concerning the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya .
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Somalia.
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 864 (1993) concerning the situation in Angola .
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 918 (1994) concerning Rwanda.
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 985 (1995) concerning Liberia .
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1132 (1997) concerning Sierra Leone.
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1160 (1998) .
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1267 (1999) .
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1298 (2000) concerning the situation between Eritrea and Ethiopia.
- Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1343 (2001) concerning Liberia.
- Security council commpttee established pursuant to resolution 1644 (2006) concerning Lebanon.
Peace-keeping Operations
Between June 1948 and August 2000, there have been 53 United Nations peace-keeping operations.
International Tribunals
- International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia - established by S/RES/808(1993) - International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY);
- International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Rwanda and Rwandan Citizens Responsible for such Violations Committed in the Territory of Neighbouring States - established at 1994.
The Security Council is primarily responsible for maintaining international peace and security. Under Chapter VII of the charter, the Security Council is the only UN organ that can order enforcement action if a case of aggression or breach of peace has been established. Enforcement action can range from economic sanctions to military measures. Disputes and breaches of peace may be brought before the Security Council by any UN member nation. Countries that are not members of the council, if affected by the issue at question, may be invited to participate in the discussion without a vote.
The Security Council has 15 members, of which 5 are permanent: the United States, Russia, Great Britain, France, and China. The other members are elected by the General Assembly to serve nonconsecutive two-year terms. Every year five new countries are elected to these seats, which rotate on a geographical basis: five from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East; two from Western countries; two from Latin America; and one from Eastern Europe. The presidency of the council is held for a month at a time by each of the members.
Nine affirmative votes are required to pass a resolution. In procedural decisions, any nine votes suffice. On all substantive matters, however, all five permanent members must support the resolution. A negative vote from any of the five permanent members prevents the adoption of any resolution, even if all other members vote in favor. This negative vote is known as the veto right of the great powers and has been a point of controversy since the establishment of the UN. The frequent use of the veto by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), especially, had given rise to repeated complaints in the UN. In 1950 this USSR use of the veto led to the adoption of the United for Peace resolution, which provides that the General Assembly may continue to consider a problem if the council is blocked from further consideration by veto. The United States cast its first veto on March 17, 1970, against a resolution that condemned Great Britain for not using force when the minority government in Rhodesia proclaimed itself a republic. The United States did support another resolution that placed sanctions against Rhodesia.
The Security Council also recommends to the assembly admission of new UN members and appointment of a new secretary general; it participates equally with the General Assembly in electing judges to the International Court of Justice. The council has two standing committees and a Military Staff Committee, which is not currently functioning; the council may also establish ad hoc bodies.
Council's Voting Procedure.
The issue of the so-called veto of the five permanent members of the Security Council, though widely discussed within the United Nations, has been widely misunderstood by the general public. Article 27 of the Charter of the United Nations provides:
(1) Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote. (2) Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members.
(3) Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that in decisions under Chapter VI, and under paragraph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting."
In other words, decisions of the Security Council on matters other than "procedural matters" require unanimity among the five permanent members of the Security Council as well as express consent of two non-permanent Council members.
The Charter provides for the following exception to the unanimity requirement on substantive matters: Whenever a member of the United Nations is a party to a dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, that member shall abstain from voting on decisions arising under Chapter VI of the Charter (Pacific Settlement of Disputes). This exception has been explained on the ground that nobody shall be judge in his own case.
In addition, Rule 40 of the Provisional Rules of Procedure adopted by the Security Council contains the following rule on voting: "Voting in the Security Council shall be in accordance with the relevant articles of the Charter and of the Statute of the International Court of Justice." The Report of the Security Council to the General Assembly comments on this rule as follows: "There was a full and free exchange of views on this subject in the Committee [of experts]. It was the view of certain of its members that the Chapter on voting should contain detailed provisions covering both the mechanics of the vote and the majorities by which the various decisions of the Council should be taken. But since the Committee was not able to draft additional rules of procedure on this subject, it was decided to defer further consideration of the problem to a later date."
Veto Procedure Reviewed.
The General Assembly, in the course of the second part of the First Session, took up the so-called veto procedure. Its discussion centered on two resolutions. The delegation for Cuba to the General Assembly proposed "to convene in conformity with Article 109 of the Charter a General Conference of the Members of the United Nations for the purpose of reviewing the present Charter of the Organization. This Conference should be held at the same place as the Second Session of the General Assembly in 1947 and should begin work immediately after the conclusion of the Assembly." The Cuban proposal, though couched in very general terms, aimed undoubtedly at amendments that would make the United Nations a more effective instrument to maintain world peace and security. Nevertheless, it was generally understood that the primary purpose of the proposed Cuban resolution was to modify the "veto" procedure. Another draft resolution concerning the method of voting in the Security Council was submitted to the General Assembly by the Australian Delegation. It furnished the basis of the Assembly Resolution of December 13, 1946, recommending to the Security Council "the early adoption of practices and procedure consistent with the Charter, to assist in reducing the difficulties in the application of Article 27 and to ensure the prompt and effective exercise by the Security Council of its functions ..." Thirty-six members voted in favor of the resolution; six members voted against it (Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Ukranian Soviet Socialist Republic, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and Yugoslavia); nine abstained (Chile, China, Denmark, Ethiopia, France, Haiti, Iceland, India, and Norway), and three were absent (Costa Rica, Panama, and Sweden).
The Assembly Resolution of November 19, 1946, tends to reconcile two conflicting principles of the Charter, namely, the voting privileges of the permanent members of the Security Council and the principle of the "sovereign equality" of all members of the United Nations.
Abstention from Voting.
Apart from the principle of unanimity and its corollary, the so-called veto, the question of abstention from voting has to be faced. There can be no doubt that the permanent members of the Security Council are authorized to abstain from voting on strictly procedural matters. Whether abstention from voting will be considered permissible on other matters remains to be seen.
Peace and Security.
Several questions were taken up by the Security Council under its responsibility for the maintenance of peace and security. These questions are usually referred to as the Iranian Question, the Greek Question, the Indonesian Question, the Syrian and Lebanese Question, the Spanish Question. Two of these issues were declared closed by the Security Council, namely, the question of the presence of British troops in Greece (February 6, 1946) and the Indonesian Question (February 13, 1946). The Syrian and Lebanese questions involving the presence of French and British troops in this area was brought to the attention of the Council on February 4, 1946. The Syrian Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs confirmed by telegram, dated May 19, 1946, that foreign troops had evacuated Syrian territory during the first two weeks of April 1946. The Lebanese Minister for Foreign Affairs informed the Security Council by letter dated May 9, 1946, about an agreement with the French Foreign Minister concerning the evacuation of French troops from Lebanon. Consequently, the Syrian and Lebanese questions were taken off the agenda of the Security Council. By contrast, the Iranian Question and the Spanish Question have been kept on the agenda by Council resolution of May 22, 1946, and of June 26, 1946, respectively. Hence, pending further action, the Council remains seized of these questions.
Organizational Functions of the Council.
In addition to its primary function of maintaining peace and security, the Security Council is charged with several organizational functions, such as designating United Nations officers. Pursuant to Article 97 of the Charter, the Security Council recommended Trygve Lie, formerly Minister of Foreign Affairs of Norway, as Secretary-General of the United Nations on January 30, 1946. Upon this recommendation, the General Assembly appointed Lie as Secretary-General on February 1, 1946.
The judges of the International Court of Justice are elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council. On February 6, the Security Council in conjunction with the General Assembly elected the following sixteen outstanding international lawyers as judges of the Court: José Gustavo Guerrero (President, El Salvador), Alejandro Alvarez (Chile), Abdel Hamid Badawj Pasha (Egypt), José Philadelpho de Barros e Azevedo (Brazil), Jules Basdevant (France), Isidro Fabela (Mexico), Green Haywood Hackworth (U.S.A.), Hsu Mo (China), Helge Klaestad (Norway), Sergey B. Krylov (U.S.S.R.), Sir Arnold Duncan McNair (England), John Erskine Read (Canada), Charles de Visscher (Belgium), Bohdan Winiarski (Poland), Milovan Zoricic (Yugoslavia), Registrar, Edvard Hambro, Jr.
Military Staff Committee.
A Military Staff Committee, to advise and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council's military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament has been set up under Article 47 of the Charter. The committee is composed of the Chiefs of Staff, or their representatives, of the five permanent members of the Security Council. The Committee met in London from February 3 to 14, 1946, and, after March 25, held meetings in New York. The committee submitted to the Security Council a Draft Statute and Draft Rules of Procedure. On February 16, 1946, the Security Council directed the Military Staff Committee to consider Article 43 of the Charter from the military point of view. Article 43 provides for agreements designed to make available to the Security Council armed forces, assistance and facilities. It should be noted that in the absence of such special agreements there is no United Nations military force in existence. It is hoped, however, that by special agreements military contingents will in the future be put at the disposal of the Security Council.
3 - The Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council coordinates the work of the 14 UN specialized agencies, 10 functional commissions and five regional commissions; receives reports from 11 UN funds and programme); and issues policy recommendations to the UN system and to Member States. Under the UN Charter , ECOSOC is responsible for promoting higher standards of living, full employment, and economic and social progress; identifying solutions to international economic, social and health problems; facilitating international cultural and educational cooperation; and encouraging universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. ECOSOC's purview extends to over 70 per cent of the human and financial resources of the entire UN system.
The ultimate objective of the Economic and Social Council is the creation of conditions of stability and well-being necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations. To this end, the Economic and Social Council is authorized to make or initiate studies and reports on international economic, social, cultural, and educational problems, public health, and other related matters, and to make recommendations on such matters to the General Assembly, to the members of the United Nations, and to the specialized agencies concerned. Moreover, the Council may prepare draft conventions and call international conferences on matters within its jurisdiction.
In carrying out its mandate, ECOSOC consults with academics, business sector representatives and more than 2,100 registered non-governmental organizations. The Council holds a four-week substantive session each July, alternating between New York and Geneva. The session includes a high-level segment, at which national cabinet ministers and chiefs of international agencies and other high officials focus their attention on a selected theme of global significance. This year, the high-level segment will cover "Resources mobilization and enabling environment for poverty eradication in the context of the implementation of the Programme of Action for the Least Developed Countries for the Decade 2001-2010". The Council will adopt a Ministerial Declaration, providing policy guidance and recommendations for action.
Policy leadership
ECOSOC has taken a lead role in key policy areas in recent years. Its 1999 high-level segment issued a "Manifesto on Poverty", which in many respects anticipated the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals that were approved at the UN Millennium Summit in New York. The Ministerial Declaration of the high-level segment in 2000 proposed specific actions to address the digital divide, leading directly to the formation in 2001 of the ICT [Information and Communication Technologies] Task Force. Last year, ECOSOC's consideration of African development resulted in the first formal international endorsement of the New Partnership for Africa's Development.
Outside of the substantive sessions, ECOSOC initiated in 1998 a tradition of meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the Bretton Woods institutions -- the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. These consultations initiated inter-institutional cooperation that paved the way for the success of the International Conference on Financing for Development, held in March 2002 in Monterrey, Mexico. At that conference, ECOSOC was assigned a primary role in monitoring and assessing follow-up to the Monterrey Consensus.
Members
The Council's 54 member Governments are elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. Seats on the Council are allotted based on geographical representation with fourteen allocated to African States, eleven to Asian States, six to Eastern European States, ten to Latin American and Caribbean States, and thirteen to Western European and other States.
ECOSOC Bureau
The Bureau of the Economic and Social Council is elected by the Council at large at the beginning of each annual session. The Bureau's main functions are to propose the agenda, draw up a programme of work and organize the session with the support of the United Nations Secretariat.
Commissions.
To realize its objective the Economic and Social Council may establish commissions in the economic and social fields.
At its first session the Council set up five "nuclear" commissions, each composed of nine persons appointed in their individual capacities: Commission on Human Rights, with a Sub-Commission on the Status of Women; Economic and Employment Commission; Statistical Commission; Temporary Social Commission; Temporary Transport and Communications Commission. The definitive character of the commissions was left to the decision of the second session of the Economic and Social Council, which determined that commissions, in general, should be composed of fifteen members; that the Human Rights and the Social Commission should include 18 members; while the Statistical Commission should be composed of 11 members. After considerable debate it was decided that the representatives from members of the United Nations should serve in an official capacity, subject to instructions from their governments. To secure a balanced representation in the various fields, it was further decided that the Secretary-General should consult with the governments designated to participate in these Commissions before the nomination of representatives or their confirmation by the Council.
In the course of the second session the Sub-Commission on the Status of Women was raised to the rank of Commission. At the third session the Council determined the terms of reference of the Fiscal and Population Commission. The full commission on Narcotic Drugs and its States Members was designated by the First Session of the Council.
It should be recalled that the scope and functions of several commissions of the Economic and Social Council correspond to the related functions of former League of Nations commissions. This holds true of the Fiscal Commission, the Narcotic Drugs Commission, the Population Commission, the Statistical Commission, the Social Commission, the Transport and Communications Commission.
As concerning the other commissions, it is noteworthy that the Economic and Employment Commission shall advise the Economic and Social Council on all matters designed to promote higher living standards, on the prevention of wide fluctuations in economic activity and on co-ordination of full employment policies. Moreover, the Commission is authorized to establish a Sub-Commission on Employment and Economic Stability and a Sub-Commission on Economic Developments.
The Commission on Human Rights shall assist the Council in the performance of its obligation to promote universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms. It has been authorized to establish sub-commissions on freedom of information, protection of minorities and prevention of discrimination. The members of the United Nations have been invited to consider the desirability of establishing information groups or local human rights committees within their respective countries to further the work of the Commission on Human Rights.
The functions of the Commission on the Status of Women shall be to prepare recommendations and reports to the Economic and Social Council on promoting women's rights in political, economic, social and educational fields. The Commission shall also make recommendations to the Council on urgent problems requiring immediate attention in the field of women's rights.
With the exception of the Narcotics Commission, only the nuclear commissions met in 1946. The nuclear commissions, meeting in New York during April and May, reported recommendations to the Council concerning the future activities of the full Commissions. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs met from November 27 to December 11, 1946 at Lake Success; it adopted, among others, a resolution transferring to the United Nations powers and functions in the field of Narcotic Drugs control formerly exercised by the League of Nations.
Sub-Commission on Devastated Areas.
he General Assembly adopted on February 2, 1946, a Resolution on the Economic Reconstruction of Devastated Areas, requesting the Economic and Social Council to place this subject on its agenda. On June 21, the Council established a temporary sub-commission to ascertain the nature and scope of the economic reconstruction problems in war devastated areas, except Germany and Japan, and to advise the Council on international measures to facilitate and accelerate reconstruction in these countries.
The sub-commission was composed of twenty members. It met for the first time in London on July 29, 1946 and concluded its session on September 13, 1946. Within the sub-commission one working group for Europe and Africa, and one for Asia and the Far East was set up. The group for Europe and Africa made on-the-spot surveys in Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Poland and Yugoslavia. Both groups prepared elaborate reports on their findings to the Council. Although a proposal to establish an economic commission for Europe was not adopted by the third session of the Economic and Social Council, a resolution was approved indicating some major problems of economic reconstruction in the areas.
Coordination of Specialized Agencies
The Charter authorizes the Economic and Social Council, established by inter-governmental agreement and having wide international responsibilities, to "coordinate the activities of specialized agencies."
By special agreement four of these agencies have been brought into relationship with the United Nations. The International Labor Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, and the Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization, on behalf of its permanent successor the International Civil Aviation Organization, have negotiated and initialed such agreements with the Economic and Social Council. On December 14, 1946 these agreements were approved by the General Assembly, subject to several changes. In reference to the International Civil Aviation Organization, for instance, a clause was inserted requiring the organization to "comply with any decision of the General Assembly regarding Franco Spain."
These agreements provide for reciprocal representation of the United Nations and each specialized agency; proposal of agenda items; membership in the specialized agency; exchange of information and documents; assistance to the Security and Trusteeship Councils; personnel arrangements; budgetary and financial arrangements; financing of special services; relations to the International Court of Justice; Public Information; Liaison.
A standing committee of administrative officers, consisting of the Secretary-General of the United Nations and the corresponding officers of the specialized agencies that have been brought into relationship with the United Nations, was instituted by an Economic and Social Council resolution of September 21, 1946, to insure the fullest and most effective implementation of the agreements entered into between the United Nations and the specialized agencies.
4 - Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council is one of the principal organs of the United Nations. Its basic objectives are to promote the political, economic, social and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories; to encourage respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; and to advance self-government in, or the independence of, trust territories as may be appropriate; to ensure equal treatment in social, economic, and commercial matters to all members of the United Nations.
Early Functioning Not Possible
It was not possible to establish the Trusteeship Council during the first part of the first session of the General Assembly. No trusteeship agreements were submitted to the London meeting of the General Assembly. The mandates system of the League of Nations — with certain notable exceptions, for instance, Syria and Lebanon — was still considered in force until April 18, 1946 when the last Assembly of the League of Nations, meeting in Geneva, recognized by resolution that, on the termination of the League's existence, its functions with respect to the mandated territories would end.
Trust Territories.
It should be noted that by the end of 1946 only former mandated territories had been declared trust territories by virtue of the following trusteeship agreements: draft trusteeship agreement for New Guinea submitted by the Government of Australia; for Ruanda-Urundi submitted by the Government of Belgium; for the Cameroons under French mandate submitted by the Government of France; for Togoland under French mandate submitted by the Government of France; for Western Samoa submitted by the Government of New Zealand; for Tanganyika submitted by the Government of the United Kingdom; for the Cameroons under British mandate submitted by the Government of the United Kingdom; for Togoland under British mandate submitted by the Government of the United Kingdom.
Through approval of these eight trusteeship agreements on December 13, 1946 the General Assembly rendered the international trusteeship system of the Charter applicable to the foregoing trust territories.
Soviet Proposal Rejected.
The delegation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics considered the draft trusteeship agreements incompatible with Art. 76, 79, and 83 of the Charter. A draft resolution to this effect, proposed by the Soviet delegation, was rejected by thirty-four votes to six with eleven abstentions.
Composition of Trusteeship Council.
The Trusteeship Council, as established by Assembly Resolution of December 14, 1946, is composed of ten members: Australia, Belgium, France, New Zealand and the United Kingdom are members of the Trusteeship Council in their capacity as administering authorities of trust territories; China, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the United States of America participate in the Trusteeship Council in their capacity as permanent members of the Security Council; Mexico and Iraq were elected to the Trusteeship Council by the General Assembly on December 14, 1946 for a term of three years to ensure that the total number of members of the Trusteeship Council is equally divided between members of the United Nations which administer trust territories and those which do not.
The Secretary General has been directed to convoke the first session of the trusteeship Council not later than March 15, 1947, and to communicate the provisional agenda for the session to each member of the Council at least thirty days in advance.
Membership of Trusteeship Council.
In contrast to the membership in the Security Council and the Economic and Social Council, the maximum number of members of the Trusteeship Council has not been defined by the Charter once and for all. Pursuant to Art. 86 of the Charter the Trusteeship Council may be enlarged or decreased in the future.
Main Functions.
The main functions of the Trusteeship Council, under the authority of the General Assembly, are: to consider reports submitted by the administering authority; to accept petitions and to examine them in consultation with the administering authority; to undertake periodic visits to the respective trust territories at times agreed upon with the administering authority; and to take other actions in conformity with the pertinent trusteeship agreements.
5 - The Secrtariat
Secretary General
On February 1, 1946 Mr. Trygve Lie, formerly Minister of Foreign Affairs of Norway, was elected the first Secretary-General of the United Nations for a term of five years; at the end of that period the appointment may be extended for another five-year term. In addition to his regular functions as Chief Administrative Officer of the organization, the Secretary-General has also a tremendous political responsibility. In particular, he is authorized under Article 99 of the Charter to bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security.
Administrative Structure
The United Nations Charter does not specify the administrative structure of the Secretariat. On February 13, 1946, the General Assembly designated by Resolution the principal eight departments of the Secretariat and authorized the Secretary-General to appoint Assistant Secretaries-General in charge of these administrative units. The Secretariat includes the following departments: Department of Security Council Affairs (Assistant Secretary-General; Department of Economic Affair; Department of Social Affairs (Assis; Department of Trusteeship and Information from Non-Self Governing Territories; Department of Public Information ; Legal Department ; Department of Conference and General Service ; Department of Administrative and Financial Services/
Selection of Personnel
Men and women are equally eligible for all posts in the Secretariat. In selection of the staff the principle of wide geographic distribution is observed. The officers of the Secretariat are selected with a view to securing the highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity.
Function of Secretariat
The Secretariat services the meetings of the principal and subsidiary organs of the United Nations, produces the required documentation, and will presumably carry on several of the research functions previously exercised by the Secretariat of the League. The Department of Public Information, in cooperation with interested specialized agencies, is designed to promote to the greatest possible extent an informed understanding of the work and purposes of the United Nations among the peoples of the world.
6 - The International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. Its seat is at the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands). It began work in 1946, when it replaced the Permanent Court of International Justice which had functioned in the Peace Palace since 1922. It operates under a Statute largely similar to that of its predecessor, which is an integral part of the Charter of the United Nations.
Functions of the Court
The Court has a dual role: to settle in accordance with international law the legal disputes submitted to it by States, and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by duly authorized international organs and agencies.
Composition
The Court is composed of 15 judges elected to nine-year terms of office by the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council sitting independently of each other. It may not include more than one judge of any nationality. Elections are held every three years for one-third of the seats, and retiring judges may be re-elected. The Members of the Court do not represent their governments but are independent magistrates.
The judges must possess the qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices, or be jurists of recognized competence in international law. The composition of the Court has also to reflect the main forms of civilization and the principal legal systems of the world.
When the Court does not include a judge possessing the nationality of a State party to a case, that State may appoint a person to sit as a judge ad hoc for the purpose of the case.
The Parties
Only States may apply to and appear before the Court. The Member States of the United Nations (at present numbering 191) are so entitled.
Jurisdiction
The Court is competent to entertain a dispute only if the States concerned have accepted its jurisdiction in one or more of the following ways:
- by the conclusion between them of a special agreement to submit the dispute to the Court;
- by virtue of a jurisdictional clause, i.e., typically, when they are parties to a treaty containing a provision whereby, in the event of a disagreement over its interpretation or application, one of them may refer the dispute to the Court. Several hundred treaties or conventions contain a clause to such effect;
- through the reciprocal effect of declarations made by them under the Statute whereby each has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in the event of a dispute with another State having made a similar declaration. The declarations of 65 States are at present in force, a number of them having been made subject to the exclusion of certain categories of dispute.
- In cases of doubt as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, it is the Court itself which decides.
Procedure
The procedure followed by the Court in contentious cases is defined in its Statute, and in the Rules of Court adopted by it under the Statute. The latest version of the Rules dates from 5 December 2000. The proceedings include a written phase, in which the parties file and exchange pleadings, and an oral phase consisting of public hearings at which agents and counsel address the Court. As the Court has two official languages (English and French) everything written or said in one language is translated into the other.
After the oral proceedings the Court deliberates in camera and then delivers its judgment at a public sitting. The judgment is final and without appeal. Should one of the States involved fail to comply with it, the other party may have recourse to the Security Council of the United Nations.
The Court discharges its duties as a full court but, at the request of the parties, it may also establish a special chamber. The Court constituted such a chamber in 1982 for the first time, formed a second one in 1985, constituted two in 1987 and two more in 2002. A Chamber of Summary Procedure is elected every year by the Court in accordance with its Statute. In July 1993 the Court also established a seven-member Chamber to deal with any environmental cases faSince 1946 the Court has delivered 89 Judgments on disputes concerning inter alia land frontiers and maritime boundaries, territorial sovereignty, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of States, diplomatic relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum, nationality, guardianship, rights of passage and economic rights.
Sources of applicable law
The Court decides in accordance with international treaties and conventions in force, international custom, the general principles of law and, as subsidiary means, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists.
Advisory Opinions
The advisory procedure of the Court is open solely to international organizations. The only bodies at present authorized to request advisory opinions of the Court are five organs of the United Nations and 16 specialized agencies of the United Nations family.
On receiving a request, the Court decides which States and organizations might provide useful information and gives them an opportunity of presenting written or oral statements. The Court's advisory procedure is otherwise modelled on that for contentious proceedings, and the sources of applicable law are the same. In principle the Court's advisory opinions are consultative in character and are therefore not binding as such on the requesting bodies. Certain instruments or regulations can, however, provide in advance that the advisory opinion shall be binding.
Since 1946 the Court has given 25 Advisory Opinions, concerning inter alia the legal consequences of the construction of a wall in the occupied Palestinian territory, admission to United Nations membership, reparation for injuries suffered in the service of the United Nations, territorial status of South-West Africa (Namibia) and Western Sahara, judgments rendered by international administrative tribunals, expenses of certain United Nations operations, applicability of the United Nations Headquarters Agreement, the status of human rights rapporteurs, and the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons.
Pending cases
Twelve cases are currently pending:
- Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro).
- Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia).
- Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of Congo).
- Armed activities on the territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Uganda).
- Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia and Montenegro).
- Maritime Delimitation between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras)
- Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia).
- Frontier Dispute (Benin/Niger).
- Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application : 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda).
- Certain Criminal Proceedings in France (Republic of the Congo v. France)
- Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge(Malaysia/Singapore).
- Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine).
The United Nations and its problems
From 1945 to the 1970’s, the United Nations looked to be a strong successor to the failed League of Nations. Success of sorts in Korea and the Congo had boosted its international image. However, many of the problems from the Cold War it could not stem. The effective occupation of Eastern Europe by Russia made a mockery of the promises made at Yalta and other war meetings. The treatment of Hungary in 1956 could not be stopped by the United Nations. Likewise, America’s involvement in Vietnam could not be stopped.
By the end of the 1970’s the United Nations had lost some of its prestige. It was clear that the two superpowers, America and Russia, would follow the foreign policy that they wanted to regardless of what the UN wanted.
The whole issue of the relationship between America and the UN weakened the UN. Since 1945, America had been the dominant force in the UN. America provided the UN with 25% of its annual budget and expected to have a big say in final UN decisions - an influence that matched the hundred of millions of dollars America has paid into the UN’s budget. Likewise, some major international problems were dealt with by America flexing her diplomatic muscles (such as in Suez and especially in the Middle East) rather than the UN solving them.
As more and more Asian and African nations gained their independence and joined the UN, power blocs within the General Assembly have developed. These have challenged the belief that the old order of western nations should dominate the UN simply by using their financial clout and their historic connections. Seven blocs have been identified:
- the Developing Nations which consists of 125 states.
- the Non-Aligned Movement which consists of 99 states (mostly Asian and African who avoid joining military alliances).
- the Islamic Conference which consists of 41 states.
- the African group of 50 states.
- the Latin American group of 33 states.
- the Western European group of 25 states.
- the Arab group of 22 states.
Within the General Assembly, all nations regardless of wealth, military power etc., have one vote. The same is true in the specialist agencies - one nation one vote. However, much of the important UN work is done in the Security Council and the five nations of Russia, America, Britain, France and China still have the right to veto a decision of the Security Council. This system has been challenged by the newer members of the UN who want one nation one vote in the Security Council as well. The five permanent members of the Security Council have fought to keep the system as it is claiming that as the five permanent members invest far more money into the UN’s budget and, as a result, should have more sway than nations that pay far less into the UN’s budget.
In 1985, this theme was even taken up by America’s Congress which declared that: In 1985, America provided the UN with 25% of its budget; the USSR provided 10.5%; Angola 0.01% and Saudi Arabia 0.86%. America claimed that such an investment should have its rewards. If the ‘Big Five’ withdrew their financial support or reduced it to the level of other nations in the UN, then the UN itself would face near bankruptcy. There was little the UN could do if members failed to pay their contribution. After the Congo crisis from 1960 to 1964, Russia, France and Belgium refused to contribute to the $400 million it had cost the UN to bring peace to the Congo.
Throughout the 1960’s, 1970’s and 1980’s, the UN run up debts nearly totalling $1 billion. In 1986, America refused to pay 50% of its annual contribution in protest at the influence newly emerging nations had or were attempting to get. America pointed out that 85% of the UN’s budget was paid by just 20 nations yet many smaller nations were trying to reform the way the UN was run (especially its voting system) without making the same financial commitment to the UN.
Towards the end of the 1980’s the UN appeared to have split in two: the richer old established nations that essentially funded the UN on one side and the newly established but poorer nations on the other side. These nations claimed that they were only poor because so much of their annual wealth was taken up in paying off debts to the world’s richest nations. The world’s richest nations have responded to this charge. They claim that internal corruption within these newer nations is responsible for their poverty - not the debts they owe for money borrowed.
Within just 60 years of its birth, the UN stood at a crossroads. If it divides into rich and poor nations, where does this leave the whole concept of all nations working for one common goal?
The United Nations and the Middle East
The United Nations has been involved in various problems in the Middle East since 1947. Whereas the Korean War and the Congo issue were settled in the sense that there was no further outbreak of hostilities, the United Nations has not managed to do the same in the Middle East. Wars have broken out in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973 and severe problems exist to this day.
After World War One, Britain had governed Palestine as a League of Nations mandate. Britain got more and more embroiled in the area and in 1947 asked the United Nations to take over the duty of running the area. The Palestinians and the Jews in the area may have detested and fought one another but both fought the British troops who were stationed there. By 1947, Britain had had enough.
The United Nations took over the area and set up an eleven-man commission to examine the problem. Their solution was to divide Palestine in half with one part for the Jews and the other for the Palestinians. The Arab nations that surrounded Palestine made it clear that this plan would not be acceptable. Regardless of this – and aware of world sympathy for the Jews in the aftermath of World War Two - the United Nations went ahead with its plan. The General Assembly approved the partition in November 1947.
The United Nations plan came to nothing. The British left Palestine in May 1948 and the Jews set up Israel almost immediately using territory given to them in the United Nations plan..
The United Nations, now with a war to deal with, arranged for a four-week truce. However, the end of the truce saw the start of hostilities again. A major problem for the United Nations was the murder of their chief negotiator in the area – Count Bernadotte. His successor was Ralph Bunche and he managed to arrange for another cease-fire in 1949. This was signed by Israel and all but one of the Arab nations that had attacked Israel in 1948. However, for many it was a truce and a renewal of war was only a matter of time. The Middle East was to present to the United Nations its most difficult question.
During the 1948 conflict, 800,000 Palestinians had fled from what was now Israel and lived in refugee camps along the border of Israel and the Arab nations that surrounded Israel. Their lifestyle was poor and the humanitarian side of the United Nations was needed to improve the lot of people who felt that they had been dispossessed of their homeland. The United Nations responded to this problem by setting up the United Nations Relief and Welfare Agency (UNRWA). It was the task of UNRWA to deal with the refugee camps – provide clean water, decent tents etc. – until a political solution could be found for the refugees which would entail them returning to Israel or being accommodated by a nearby Arab nation.
The United Nations also set-up the CCP – Conciliation Commission for Palestine. This body held talks in neutral Switzerland. The main issue that had to be addressed was the border Israel held between itself and its Arab neighbours. In 1948, Israel had taken much of the land from the Palestinians that had been scheduled under the United Nations plan to be given to them.
In 1956, a full-scale war broke out when Israel attacked the Sinai – Egypt east of the Suez Canal.Egypt, lead by Nasser, had nationalised the Suez Canal. Up to 1956, this had been co-owned by Britain and France with both countries benefiting from the profits this canal made. Now, Nasser believed that these profits should go to Egypt.
As a result of this, Britain and France had helped Israel plan out its October attack on Egypt. Their plan was simple – Israel would attack the Sinai (Egypt east of the Suez Canal) while Britain and France would attack and occupy the Suez Canal zone.
When the Security Council voted on a resolution for Israel to withdraw from the Sinai, Britain and France vetoed it. The Security Council transferred its power to the General Assembly using the ‘Uniting For Peace’ principle and the General Assembly of the United Nations called for a cease-fire and on November 5th 1956, it created a United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF). The role of the UNEF was to act as a buffer between the Israelis and the Egyptians thus ensuring that a cease-fire was maintained.
Just one day later the British and French launched their attack on the Suez. The United Nations was powerless to stop this attack. However, America, lead by Eisenhower, expressed its severe reservations regarding this attack and threatened to stop oil supplies to both Britain and France. The Suez Canal could not be used to gain oil as it had been shut. Therefore, unless Britain and France did what America wanted, they would be starved out of oil. They had to pull out of the Suez.
On November 16th 1956. 6000 United Nations troops arrived in the Sinai to keep both Israel and Egypt apart. The United Nations troops came from Finland, Canada, Yugoslavia, Denmark, Norway, Brazil, India and Columbia. They carried only light weapons and were ordered only to use them in self-defence. The UNEF remained in the Sinai as a buffer until told to leave by Nasser in 1967.
The UNEF left the Sinai in 1967 because it had agreed that if told to leave it would do so. To many observers, the order by Nasser for the UNEF to withdraw meant that trouble was brewing. Israel feared that she would be attacked and before waiting to be attack, Israel launched attacks on Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq. This war lasted only six days and the fighting only stopped when the Security Council ordered a cease-fire. It also drew up Resolution 242 which they believed would restore peace to the Middle East. Resolution 242 called for:
- The withdrawal of Israeli forces from Arab land they had occupied
- A solution to the Palestinian refugee problem
- The right of every state concerned in the Middle East to live in peace
- Free navigation of international waterways
- Secure boundaries between each nation in the Middle East.
All the involved nations signed 242 except Syria. However, it was not long before it became clear that each side – Arabs and Jews – interpreted each point differently. Each side also put a different emphasis on each point. What was important to the Arabs had much less importance to Israel. As an example, Israel declared its intention of staying in Arab land that they considered to be of strategic importance to the survival of Israel. The Arab nations viewed the withdrawal of Israeli forces from occupied Arab land as not open to interpretation. With such distrust, it was clear that some form of warfare would occur again. This happened in 1973 and once again the United Nations could do nothing to prevent it.
In 1973, Egypt had a new leader – Anwar Sadat. He announced that any future peace for the Middle East could only be settled once and for all by the use of military force. On Israel’s most holy of days, Yom Kippur, Egypt attacked catching the usually vigilant Israeli forces off guard.
The United Nations called for a cease-fire and passed Resolution 338. A United Nations conference in Geneva was called but produced no result. This was an obvious rebuff for the United Nations and all future peace negotiations were taken on by the USA – not the United Nations. As a result of America’s Secretary of State, Henry Kissenger, and his use of ‘shuttle diplomacy’ a Disengagement Agreement was signed in January 1974. This allowed for a new UNEF to be sent to the Middle East. This new force was made up of 7000 men and was again stationed between Egypt and Israel. A United Nations Observer Force was sent to monitor the border between Israel and Syria.
Between 1973 and the 1978 Camp David agreement, most of the work done at a diplomatic level regarding the Middle East was centred on an American input. However, in 1975, the United Nations did criticise Israel regarding its treatment of those Palestinians who continued to live outside of Israel’s borders in refugee camps and who wished to return to live in what they would refer to as Palestine. In 1977, the United Nations also criticised Israel’s policy of building settlements on land they occupied as a result of military victories.





Chapter 3
The specialized agencies
of the United Nations

Coordination of Specialized Agencies.
The Charter authorizes the Economic and Social Council, established by inter-governmental agreement and having wide international responsibilities, to "coordinate the activities of specialized agencies."
By special agreement many of these agencies have been brought into relationship with the United Nations.These agreements provide for reciprocal representation of the United Nations and each specialized agency; proposal of agenda items; membership in the specialized agency; exchange of information and documents; assistance to the Security and Trusteeship Councils; personnel arrangements; budgetary and financial arrangements; financing of special services; relations to the International Court of Justice.
A standing committee of administrative officers, consisting of the Secretary-General of the United Nations and the corresponding officers of the specialized agencies that have been brought into relationship with the United Nations, was instituted by an Economic and Social Council resolution of September 21, 1946, to insure the fullest and most effective implementation of the agreements entered into between the United Nations and the specialized agencies.
• ILO - International Labour Organization
• FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
• UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
• WHO - World Health Organization
• World Bank Group
o IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
o IDA - International Development Association
o IFC - International Finance Corporation
o MIGA - Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
o ICSID - International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
• IMF - International Monetary Fund
• ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization
• IMO - International Maritime Organization
• ITU - International Telecommunication Union
• UPU - Universal Postal Union
• WMO - World Meteorological Organization
• WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization
• IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development
• UNICEF
• UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization
• IRO - International Refugee Organization(ceased to exist in 1952)
• INCB - International Narcotics Control Board

International Labour Organization (ILO)

The International Labour Organization was created in 1919, at the end of the First World War, at the time of the Peace Conference which convened first in Paris, then at Versailles. The need for such an organization had been advocated in the nineteenth century by two industrialists, Robert Owen (1771-1853) of Wales and Daniel Legrand (1783-1859) of France.
After having been put to the test within the International Association for Labour Legislation, founded in Basel in 1901, their ideas were incorporated into the Constitution of the International Labour Organization, adopted by the Peace Conference in April of 1919.
The initial motivation was humanitarian. The condition of workers, more and more numerous and exploited with no consideration for their health, their family lives and their advancement, was less and less acceptable. This preoccupation appears clearly in the Preamble of the Constitution of the ILO, where it is stated, "conditions of labour exist involving ... injustice, hardship and privation to large numbers of people. "
The second motivation was political. Without an improvement in their condition, the workers, whose numbers were ever increasing as a result of industrialization, would create social unrest, even revolution. The Preamble notes that injustice produces "unrest so great that the peace and harmony of the world are imperilled."
The third motivation was economic. Because of its inevitable effect on the cost of production, any industry or country adopting social reform would find itself at a disadvantage vis-à-vis its competitors. The Preamble states that "the failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of labour is an obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve the conditions in their own countries."
Another reason for the creation of the International Labour Organization was added by the participants of the Peace Conference, linked to the end of the war to which workers had contributed significantly both on the battlefield and in industry. This idea appears at the very beginning of the Constitution: "universal and lasting peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice."
The ILO Constitution was written between January and April, 1919, by the Labour Commission set up by the Peace Conference. The Commission was composed of representatives from nine countries, Belgium, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy, Japan, Poland, the United Kingdom and the United States, under the chairmanship of Samuel Gompers, head of the American Federation of Labour (AFL). It resulted in a tripartite organization, the only one of its kind bringing together representatives of governments, employers and workers in its executive bodies. The ILO Constitution became Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles
Structure of the ILO
The ILO accomplishes its work through three main bodies, all of which encompass the unique feature of the Organization: its tripartite structure (government, employers, workers).
- International Labour Conference: The member States of the ILO meet at the International Labour Conference in June of each year, in Geneva. Each member State is represented by two government delegates, an employer delegate and a worker delegate. They are accompanied by technical advisors. It is generally the Cabinet Ministers responsible for labour affairs in their own countries who head the delegations, take the floor and present their governments' points of view.
- Employer and worker delegates can express themselves and vote according to instructions received from their organizations. They sometimes vote against each other or even against their government representatives.
The Conference plays a very important role. It establishes and adopts international labour standards. It acts as a forum where social and labour questions of importance to the entire world are discussed. The Conference also adopts the budget of the Organization and elects the Governing Body.
- The Governing Body is the executive council of the ILO and meets three times a year in Geneva. It takes decisions on ILO's policy. It establishes the programme and the budget which it then submits to the Conference for adoption. It also elects the Director-General.
It is composed of 28 government members, 14 employer members and 14 worker members. Ten of the government seats are permanently held by States of chief industrial importance. Representatives of other member countries are elected at the Conference every three years, taking into account geographical distribution. The employers and workers elect their own representatives respectively.

- The International Labour Office is the permanent secretariat of the International Labour Organization and focal point for the overall activities that it prepares under the scrutiny of the Governing Body and under the leadership of a Director-General, who is elected for a five-year renewable term. The Office employs some 1,900 officials of over 110 nationalities at the Geneva headquarters and in 40 field offices around the world. In addition, some 600 experts undertake missions in all regions of the world under the programme of technical cooperation. The Office also constitutes a research and documentation centre and a printing house issuing a broad range of specialized studies, reports and periodicals
The Strategic Objectives of the ILO
"In an uncertain world, an organization must have a clear sense of its objectives and strategies. Tactics and specific activities may have to be adjusted quickly to meet changing circumstances, but this should be done with a clear sense of purpose. The organizing theme for the period 2002-05 is putting the decent work agenda into practice."

- Promote and realize standards and fundamental principles and rights at work.
- Create greater opportunities for women and men to secure decent employment and income.
- Enhance the coverage and effectiveness of social protection for all.
- Strengthen tripartism and social dialogue.
- Cross-cutting activities.

World Health Organization(WHO)

World Health Organization (WHO), specialized agency of the United Nations, with headquarters in Geneva. WHO was established in 1948. According to its constitution it is “the directing and coordinating authority on international health work” and is responsible for helping all peoples to attain “the highest possible levels of health.”
The services of the agency may be either advisory or technical. Advisory services include aid in training medical personnel and in disseminating knowledge of diseases such as influenza, malaria, smallpox, tuberculosis, venereal diseases, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS); maternal and child health; nutrition; population planning; and environmental sanitation. The agency maintains health-demonstration areas for sustained application of modern techniques to improve general health conditions and to combat specific diseases interfering with agricultural productivity and overall economic development. The technical services include biological standardization and unification of pharmacopoeias, collection and dissemination of epidemiological information, special international research projects on parasitic and viral diseases, and publication of a series of technical and scientific works.
The central structure of WHO includes the policymaking body called the World Health Assembly, which consists of delegates of all member nations and meets yearly; an executive board of 31 individuals elected by the assembly; and a secretariat, consisting of a director-general and a technical and administrative staff. The agency maintains regional organizations for Southeast Asia, the eastern Mediterranean area, Europe, Africa, the Americas, and the western Pacific area.
The World Health Assembly is the supreme decision-making body for WHO. It generally meets in Geneva in May each year, and is attended by delegations from all 192 Member States. Its main function is to determine the policies of the Organization. The Health Assembly appoints the Director-General, supervises the financial policies of the Organization, and reviews and approves the Proposed programme budget. It similarly considers reports of the Executive Board, which it instructs in regard to matters upon which further action, study, investigation or report may be required.
The Executive Board is composed of 32 members technically qualified in the field of health. Members are elected for three-year terms. The main Board meeting, at which the agenda for the forthcoming Health Assembly is agreed upon and resolutions for forwarding to the Health Assembly are adopted, is held in January, with a second shorter meeting in May, immediately after the Health Assembly, for more administrative matters. The main functions of the Board are to give effect to the decisions and policies of the Health Assembly, to advise it and generally to facilitate its work.
The Secretariat of WHO is staffed by some 3500 health and other experts and support staff on fixed-term appointments, working at headquarters, in the six regional offices, and in countries.
The Organization is headed by the Director-General, who is appointed by the Health Assembly on the nomination of the Executive Board. The current Director-General is LEE Jong-wook.

Industrial Development Organizatio (UNIDO)
international agency established by the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) in 1966 to help developing nations build strong economies by creating a solid industrial base. The organization offers technical assistance, fosters international industrial partnerships, and funds projects that aid the efforts of emerging nations to achieve long-term prosperity. UNIDO projects include initiatives to privatize ownership of businesses in developing nations and to assist efforts by former Communist countries in Eastern Europe to reduce industrial pollution. UNIDO has headquarters in New York City and Geneva, Switzerland. It receives contributions from 168 member nations.
Like many other international aid and development organizations, UNIDO experienced pressure to reform its operations in the 1990s. From 1993 to 1996, UNIDO cut its staff from 1250 employees to 800. The organization reduced its budget from $131 million in 1995 to $90 million in 1996. Most of the cuts occurred in administration, rather than in field programs. As a consequence of the reform effort, UNIDO now places special emphasis on the world’s very poorest nations, especially those in Africa. It also focuses on industries related to agriculture, food, clothing, and shelter.
Despite UNIDO’s reform efforts, the United States withdrew from the organization at the end of 1996, citing federal cutbacks in foreign aid expenditures and a lack of commitment to the agency from some members of the U.S. Congress. In 1996, Britain and Australia also announced plans to withdraw from UNIDO. Critics in the United States and Britain concede that UNIDO has made substantial progress in meeting the reform goals of member nations. The decision of both countries to withdraw from the organization instead reflects domestic political considerations and the desire to send a message to the UN about the need for further reform of its operations. Critics also argue that at least two other UN organizations - the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) - focus on development in impoverished nations. Because the United States and Britain contributed one-third of the organization’s budget, their withdrawals have raised questions about UNIDO’s ability to survive.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

United Nations (FAO), is a specialized United Nations agency whose main goal is to afford freedom from hunger on a world scale. According to its constitution, the specific objectives are “raising levels of nutrition and standards of living ...and securing improvements in the efficiency of the production and distribution of all food and agricultural products ....”
The FAO originated at a conference called by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Hot Springs, Virginia, in May 1943. The 34 nations represented established the UN Interim Commission on Food and Agriculture. In October 1945 the first session of the FAO was held in Québec.
Structure
At present the organization has 161 members; it is headed by a director general. Each member nation has one vote in the general conference, the policymaking body that convenes once every two years to approve programs, budgets, and rules of procedure, as well as to make recommendations on agricultural questions. The 49-member FAO council meets between conference sessions to monitor the world food situation and suggest necessary action. The council's committees deal with problems on agriculture, commodities, forestry, and fisheries. The third organ, the secretariat, is responsible for implementing FAO programs. Main headquarters is in Rome.
Activities
Functions of the FAO include collecting, analyzing, and distributing information about nutrition, food, and agriculture; fostering conservation of natural resources; and promoting both adequate national and international agricultural-credit policies and international agricultural-commodity arrangements. Among its projects are the development of basic soil and water resources; the international exchange of new types of plants; the control of animal and plant diseases; and the provision to needy member nations of technical assistance in such fields as nutrition, food preservation, irrigation, soil conservation, and reforestation. In recent years, the FAO has worked to develop new plant mutations by using radioactive materials, to aid developing nations in cultivating fast-growing varieties of crops such as rice and wheat, and to establish monitoring networks to warn of possible food shortages (such as the current potential for widespread starvation in Africa).
In 1974 the FAO helped organize the World Food Conference, held in Rome, which considered the critical problem of maintaining adequate food supplies. On the recommendation of the conference, the FAO expanded its information-gathering services to facilitate improved worldwide food security.

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), specialized United Nations agency, formally established in December 1977. The agreement creating IFAD was an outgrowth of the World Food Conference held in Rome in 1974. IFAD's major function is to lend money to help developing nations improve their food production, reduce malnutrition, and provide agricultural employment. Resources are channeled to the poorest rural populations. In 2001 the fund had 162 members. It is directed by a governing council, on which all members are represented, and administered by an 18-member executive board. IFAD headquarters is in Rome.
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), a specialized agency of the United Nations, was established as an international financial institution in 1977 as one of the major outcomes of the 1974 World Food Conference. The Conference was organized in response to the food crises of the early 1970s that primarily affected the Sahelian countries of Africa. The Conference resolved that "an International Fund for Agricultural Development should be established immediately to finance agricultural development projects primarily for food production in the developing countries". One of the most important insights emerging from the Conference was that the causes of food insecurity and famine were not so much failures in food production, but structural problems relating to poverty and to the fact that the majority of the developing world’s poor populations were concentrated in rural areas.
IFAD is dedicated to eradicating rural poverty in developing countries. Seventy-five per cent of the world’s poorest people - 900 million women, children and men - live in rural areas and depend on agriculture and related activities for their livelihoods.
Working with rural poor people, governments, donors, non-governmental organizations and many other partners, IFAD focuses on country-specific solutions, which can involve increasing rural poor peoples’ access to financial services, markets, technology, land and other natural resources.
IFAD Strategic
IFAD’s activities are guided by the Strategi Enabling the Rural Poor to Overcome Their Poverty. The framework’s three strategic objectives are to:
- strengthen the capacity of the rural poor and their organizations
- improve equitable access to productive natural resources and technologies.
- increase access by the poor to financial services and markets.
Underlying these strategic objectives is IFAD’s belief that rural poor people must be empowered to lead their own development if poverty is to be eradicated. Poor people must be able to develop and strengthen their own organizations, so they can advance their own interests and dismantle the obstacles that prevent many of them from creating better lives for themselves. They must be able to have a say in the decisions and policies that affect their lives, and they need to strengthen their bargaining power in the marketplace.
All of IFAD’s decisions - on regional, country and thematic strategies, poverty reduction strategies, policy dialogue and development partners – are made with these principles and objectives in mind. As reflected in the strategic framework, IFAD is committed to achieving the Millennium Development Goals, in particular the target to halve the proportion of hungry and extremely poor people by 2015.
Working in partnership to eradicate rural poverty
Through low-interest loans and grants, IFAD works with governments to develop and finance programmes and projects that enable rural poor people to overcome poverty themselves.
There are close to 200 ongoing IFAD-supported rural poverty eradication programmes and projects, totaling US$ 6.5 billion. IFAD has invested almost US$ 3 billion in these initiatives. At full development, these programmes will help more than 100 million rural poor women and men to achieve better lives for themselves and their families. Since starting operations in 1978, IFAD has invested more than US$ 8.5 billion in 676 projects and programmes that have reached more than 250 million poor rural people.
But this represents only part of the total investment in IFAD projects and programmes. In the past 26 years, a further US$ 15.2 billion in cofinancing was contributed by partners. Governments and other financing sources in recipient countries have contributed more than US$ 8.4 billion, while another US$ 6.8 billion has been contributed by external cofinanciers, including from bilateral and multilateral donors. This represents a total investment of about US$ 23.7 billion, and means that for every dollar IFAD invested, it was able to mobilize almost two dollars in additional resources.
IFAD tackles poverty not only as a lender, but also as an advocate for rural poor people. Its multilateral base provides a natural global platform to discuss important policy issues that influence the lives of rural poor people, as well as to draw attention to the centrality of rural development to meeting the Millennium Development Goals.
IFAD Membership
Membership in IFAD is open to any state that is a member of the United Nations or its specialized agencies or the International Atomic Energy Agency. The Governing Council is IFAD’s highest decision-making authority, with 164 Member States represented by Governors, Alternate Governors and any other designated advisers. The Council meets annually. The Executive Board, responsible for overseeing the general operations of IFAD and approving loans and grants, is composed of 18 members and 18 alternate members. The President, who serves for a four-year term (renewable once), is IFAD’s chief executive officer and chair of the Executive Board. The current President of IFAD is Mr Lennart Båge, who is serving his first four-year term.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

International Telecommunication Union (ITU), specialized United Nations agency, originally formed in Paris in 1865 as the International Telegraph Union. In 1934 the ITU was established to succeed all previous agencies in the telecommunications field, and in 1947 it became affiliated with the UN. The ITU has no permanent constitution, but its existence is renewed periodically by agreement among the members.
The objectives of the ITU are to maintain and extend international cooperation for the improvement and rational use of telecommunications of all kinds; to promote the development and efficient operation of technical facilities in order to improve telecommunication services, increase their usefulness, and make them generally available to the public; and to coordinate the actions of nations so they may attain these goals. Special concerns include the problems and opportunities arising from space telecommunications and the improvement of telecommunications in developing member nations.
The ITU is composed of 162 member states and has its headquarters in Geneva. The principal organ of the union is the plenipotentiary conference, which normally meets once every five years. The conference elects a 41-member administrative council that meets once a year to approve the ITU budget and to coordinate the work of the other organs of the union. These organs are the General Secretariat, the International Frequency Registration Board, the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee, and the International Radio Consultative Committee. World and regional administrative conferences are held occasionally to deal with technical questions.
Purposes
Every time someone, somewhere, picks up a telephone and dials a number, answers a call on a mobile phone, sends a fax or receives an e-mail, takes a plane or a ship, listens to the radio, watches a favourite television programme or helps a small child master the latest radio-controlled toy, they benefit from the work of the International Telecommunication Union.
The Union was established last century as an impartial, international organization within which governments and the private sector could work together to coordinate the operation of telecommunication networks and services and advance the development of communications technology. Whilst the organization remains relatively unknown to the general public, ITU’s work over more than one hundred years has helped create a global communications network which now integrates a huge range of technologies, yet remains one of the most reliable man-made systems ever developed.
As the use of telecommunication technology and radioc ommunication - based systems spreads to encompass an ever-wider range of activities, the vital work carried out by ITU is taking on growing importance in the day-to-day lives of people all around the world.
The Union’s standardization activities, which have already helped foster the growth of new technologies such as mobile telephony and the Internet, are now being put to use in defining the building blocks of the emerging global information infrastructure, and designing advanced multimedia systems which deftly handle a mix of voice, data, audio and video signals.
Meanwhile, ITU’s continuing role in managing the radio-frequency spectrum ensures that radio-based systems like cellular phones and pagers, aircraft and maritime navigation systems, scientific research stations, satellite communication systems and radio and television broadcasting all continue to function smoothly and provide reliable wireless services to the world’s inhabitants.
Finally, ITU’s increasingly important role as a catalyst for forging development partnerships between government and private industry is helping bring about rapid improvements in telecommunication infrastructure in the world’s under-developed economies.
Whether in telecommunication development, standards-setting or spectrum sharing, ITU’s consensus-building approach helps governments and the telecommunication industry confront and deal with a broad range of issues which would be difficult to resolve bilaterally.
The result is real-life, workable agreements which benefit not only the telecommunication industry as a whole but, ultimately, telecommunication users everywhere.
Under the Constitution of the International Telecommunication Union, the purposes of ITU are:
- To maintain and extend international cooperation between all its Member States for the improvement and rational use of telecommunications of all kinds.
- To promote and enhance participation of entities and organizations in the activities of the Union, and to foster fruitful cooperation and partnership between them and Member States for the fulfilment of the overall objectives embodied in the purposes of the Union.
- To promote and offer technical assistance to developing countries in the field of telecommunications, and also to promote the mobilization of the material, human and financial resources needed to improve access to telecommunications services in such countries.
- To promote the development of technical facilities and their most efficient operation, with a view to improving the efficiency of telecommunication services, increasing their usefulness and making them, so far as possible, generally available to the public
- To promote the extension of the benefits of new telecommunication technologies to all the world’s inhabitants.
- To promote the use of telecommunication services with the objective of facilitating peaceful relations.
- To harmonize the actions of Member States and promote fruitful and constructive cooperation and partnership between Member States and Sector Members in the attainment of those ends.
- To promote, at the international level, the adoption of a broader approach to the issues of telecommunications in the global information economy and society, by cooperating with other world and regional intergovernmental organizations and those non-governmental organizations concerned with telecommunications.
The Universal Postal Union's (UPU)

The postal service forms part of the daily life of people all over the world. Even in the digital age, the Post remains, for millions of people, the most accessible means of communication and message delivery available.
The postal services of the Universal Postal Union's 190 member countries form the largest physical distribution network in the world. More than six million postal employees work in over 700 000 postal outlets to ensure that some 430 billion mail items are processed and delivered each year to all corners of the world.
Keeping pace with the changing communications market, Posts are increasingly using new communication and information technologies to move beyond what is traditionally regarded as their core postal business They are meeting higher customer expectations with an expanded range of products and value-added services.
Established in 1874, the Universal Postal Union (UPU) with its Headquarters in the Swiss capital Bern, is the second oldest international organisation after the International Telecommunications Union.
With 190 member countries, the UPU is the primary forum for cooperation between postal services and helps to ensure a truly universal network of up-to-date products and services. In this way, the organisation fulfils an advisory, mediating and liaison role, and renders technical assistance where needed. It sets the rules for international mail exchanges and makes recommendations to stimulate growth in mail volumes and to improve the quality of service for customers.
However, as a non-political organisation, it does not interfere in matters that fall within the domestic domain of national postal services. For example, Posts set their own postage rates, decide which and how many postage stamps to issue, and how to manage their postal operations and staff.
By virtue of its mission to develop social, cultural and commercial communication between people through the efficient operation of the postal service, the UPU is called upon to play an important leadership role in promoting the continued revitalisation of postal services.
The UPU today and tomorrow
The same forces affecting the world's Posts - globalization, growing customer expectations, increased competition and progress in communications technologies - have also caused the UPU to review its own mission and role. Although its fundamental mission of developing social, cultural and commercial communication among the people of the world has remained remarkably constant throughout its history, the UPU has seen the need to reshape its structures in order better meet the needs and expectations of its members.
The UPU will continue to work toward the goal of ensuring that all people have affordable and reliable access to postal services. One of its future roles will be to develop and monitor standards for the provision of universal postal service, including such features as access to service, efficiency, customer satisfaction, security and reasonable pricing.
The UPU will also continue to provide technical assistance, training and consultant services in order to improve the quality of the postal service and help implement new systems in developing countries.
The future role of the UPU will be one that is more inclusive of external stakeholders, ensuring that the changing needs of postal customers are addressed effectively. The UPU will therefore increasingly provide a global forum for its members and external partners. In this way, it will remain a vital force in the continued development of postal services.
UPU Mission statement
The mission of the Universal Postal Union is to foster the sustainable development of quality universal, efficient accessible postal services in order to facilitate communication among the people of the world by:
- Guaranteeing the free circulation of postal items through an interconnected single postal territory
- Promoting the adoption of fair and common standards and the application of technology
- Cooperation and interaction among stakeholders
- Facilitating the effective provision of technical cooperation
- Ensuring that the changing needs of customers are addressed


The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), specialized technical agency of the United Nations, created as a permanent body on April 4, 1947, for the purpose of promoting the safe and orderly development of civil aviation throughout the world. The agency sets international standards and regulations necessary for the safety, efficiency, and regularity of air transport. The ICAO also serves as a medium for cooperation in all fields of civil aviation among its member nations, and it provides technical assistance to countries who need help maintaining civil aviation facilities or meeting the global standards set by the ICAO. The ICAO also produces technical publications and special studies.
The agency has been instrumental in improving meteorological services, air traffic control, air-to-ground communications, search and rescue operations, and other measures for safe international flight. It also has done much to simplify customs and immigration procedures and public health regulations related to international air travel. The fight against airplane hijacking and other terrorist attacks and the effects of aircraft noise on the environment also have been of special concern to the ICAO.
The ICAO is composed of 180 member nations that meet once every three years at an assembly. Its executive body in the interim is a council consisting of representatives from 33 member nations who are elected by the assembly on the basis of their relative importance in international air transport and of geographical distribution. The ICAO has its own secretariat, headed by a secretary general appointed by the council, and several permanent technical committees. The agency headquarters is in Montréal.

International Maritime Organization (IMO)
The International Maritime Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations which is responsible for measures to improve the safety and security of international shipping and to prevent marine pollution from ships. It also is involved in legal matters, including liability and compensation issues and the facilitation of international maritime traffic. It was established by means of a Convention adopted under the auspices of the United Nations in Geneva on 17 March 1948 and met for the first time in January 1959. It currently has 164 Member States. IMO's governing body is the Assembly which is made up of all 164 Member States and meets normally once every two years. It adopts the budget for the next biennium together with technical resolutions and recommendations prepared by subsidiary bodies during the previous two years. The Council acts as governing body in between Assembly sessions. It prepares the budget and work programme for the Assembly. The main technical work is carried out by the Maritime Safety, Marine Environment Protection, Legal, Technical Co-operation and Facilitation Committees and a number of sub-committee.
What does IMO do?
When IMO first began operations its chief concern was to develop international treaties and other legislation concerning safety and marine pollution prevention.
By the late 1970s, however, this work had been largely completed, though a number of important instruments were adopted in more recent years. IMO is now concentrating on keeping legislation up to date and ensuring that it is ratified by as many countries as possible. This has been so successful that many Conventions now apply to more than 98% of world merchant shipping tonnage. Currently the emphasis is on trying to ensure that these conventions and other treaties are properly implemented by the countries that have accepted them. The texts of conventions, codes and other instruments adopted by IMO can be found in the section dealing with Publications.
Structure
The Organization consists of an Assembly, a Council and four main Committees: the Maritime Safety Committee; the Marine Environment Protection Committee; the Legal Committee; and the Technical Co-operation Committee. There is also a Facilitation Committee and a number of Sub-Committees support the work of the main technical committees.
Assembly
This is the highest Governing Body of the Organization. It consists of all Member States and it meets once every two years in regular sessions, but may also meet in an extraordinary session if necessary. The Assembly is responsible for approving the work programme, voting the budget and determining the financial arrangements of the Organization. The Assembly also elects the Council.
Council
The Council is elected by the Assembly for two-year terms beginning after each regular session of the Assembly.The Council is the Executive Organ of IMO and is responsible, under the Assembly, for supervising the work of the Organization. Between sessions of the Assembly the Council performs all the functions of the Assembly, except the function of making recommendations to Governments on maritime safety and pollution prevention which is reserved for the Assembly by Article 15(j) of the Convention.
Other functions of the Council are to:
- co-ordinate the activities of the organs of the Organization;
- consider the draft work programme and budget estimates of the Organization and submit them to the Assembly;
- receive reports and proposals of the Committees and other organs and submit them to the Assembly and Member States, with comments and recommendations as appropriate;
- appoint the Secretary-General, subject to the approval of the Assembly;
- enter into agreements or arrangements concerning the relationship of the Organization with other organizations, subject to approval by the Assembly.
Council members
The IMO Convention provides that in electing the Members of the Council the Assembly shall observe the following criteria:
- ten shall be States with the largest interest in providing international shipping services;
- ten shall be other States with the largest interest in international seaborne trade; and
- twenty shall be States not elected under (a) or (b) above which have special interests in maritime transport or navigation and whose election to the Council will ensure the representation of all major geographic areas of the world.
The Members of the Council elected by the 23rd Assembly for 2004 and 2005 are as follows:
Maritime Safety Committee (MSC)
The MSC is the highest technical body of the Organization. It consists of all Member States. The functions of the Maritime Safety Committee are to “consider any matter within the scope of the Organization concerned with aids to navigation, construction and equipment of vessels, manning from a safety standpoint, rules for the prevention of collisions, handling of dangerous cargoes, maritime safety procedures and requirements, hydrographic information, log-books and navigational records, marine casualty investigations, salvage and rescue and any other matters directly affecting maritime safety”.
The Committee is also required to provide machinery for performing any duties assigned to it by the IMO Convention or any duty within its cope of work which may be assigned to it by or under any international instrument and accepted by the Organization. It also has the responsibility for considering and submitting recommendations and guidelines on safety for possible adoption by the Assembly.
The “expanded MSC” adopts amendments to conventions such as SOLAS and includes all Member States as well as those countries which are Party to conventions such as SOLAS even if they are not IMO Member States.

The Marine Environment Protection Committee(MEPC)

The MEPC, which consists of all Member States, is empowered to consider any matter within the scope of the Organization concerned with prevention and control of pollution from ships. In particular it is concerned with the adoption and amendment of conventions and other regulations and measures to ensure their enforcement.The MEPC was first established as a subsidiary body of the Assembly and raised to full constitutional status in 1985.
Sub-Committees
The MSC and MEPC are assisted in their work by nine sub-committees which are also open to all Member States. They deal with the following subjects:
Bulk Liquids and Gases (BLG),Carriage of Dangerous Goods, Solid Cargoes and Containers(DSC),Fire Protection (FP),Radio-communications and Search and Rescue (COMSAR),Safety of Navigation (NAV), Ship Design and Equipment (DE), Stability and Load Lines and Fishing Vessels Safety (SLF),Standards of Training and Watch keeping(STW), Flag State Implementation (FSI).
Legal Committee
The Legal Committee is empowered to deal with any legal matters within the scope of the Organization. The Committee consists of all Member States of IMO.
It was established in 1967 as a subsidiary body to deal with legal questions which arose in the aftermath of the Torrey Canyon disaster.The Legal Committee is also empowered to perform any duties within its scope which may be assigned by or under any other international instrument and accepted by the Organization.
Technical Co-operation Committee
The Technical Co-operation Committee is required to consider any matter within the scope of the Organization concerned with the implementation of technical co-operation projects for which the Organization acts as the executing or co-operating agency and any other matters related to the Organization’s activities in the technical co-operation field.
The Technical Co-operation Committee consists of all Member States of IMO, was established in 1969 as a subsidiary body of the Council, and was institutionalized by means of an amendment to the IMO Convention which entered into force in 1984.
Facilitation Committee
The Facilitation Committee is a subsidiary body of the Council. It was established in May 1972 and deals with IMO’s work in eliminating unnecessary formalities and “red tape” in international shipping. Participation in the Facilitation Committee is open to all Member States of IMO.
The 1991 amendments to the IMO Convention, when they come into force, will institutionalise the Facilitation Committee, putting it on the same standing as the other Committees. However, these amendments have not yet received enough acceptances to come into force.
Secretariat
The Secretariat of IMO consists of the Secretary-General and nearly 300 personnel based at the headquarters of the Organization in London.
Regional Co-ordination
IMO has appointed three regional co-ordinators in Africa.

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

The UN system’s authoritative voice on the state and behaviour of the Earth’s atmosphere, its interaction with the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting distribution of water resources.
The World Meteorological Organization is an intergovernmental organization with a membership of 187 Member States and Territories. It originated from the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), which was founded in 1873. Established in 1950, WMO became the specialized agency of the United Nations for meteorology (weather and climate), operational hydrology and related geophysical sciences.
Since its establishment, WMO has played a unique and powerful role in contributing to the welfare of humanity. Under WMO leadership and within the framework of WMO programmes, National Meteorological and Hydrological Services have contributed substantially to the protection of life and property against natural disasters, to safeguarding the environment and to enhancing the economic and social well-being of all sectors of society in areas such as food security, water resources and transport. It has a unique role within the UN system it facilitates the free and unrestricted exchange of data and information, products and services in real- or near-real time on matters relating to safety and security of society, economic well being and the prevention of the environment.
As weather and climate know no national boundaries, international cooperation at a global scale is essential for the development of meteorology and operational hydrology as well as to reap the benefits from their applications. WMO provides the framework for such international cooperation.
WMO is playing a leading role in international efforts to monitor and protect the environment through its Programmes, such as the World Weather Watch Programme, World Climate Programme, the Atmospheric Research and Environment Programme, and the Hydrology and Water Resources Programme. For instance, in collaboration with the UN agencies and the NMHSs of Members, WMO continues to support the implementation of relevant conventions such as the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the International Convention to Combat Desertification, and the Vienna Convention on the Protection of Ozone Layer and its Protocols and Amendments. WMO is instrumental in providing advice and assessments to governments on matters relating to the above Conventions. These activities contribute towards ensuring the sustainable development and well-being of nations.
In the specific case of weather natural disasters which account for nearly three-quarters of all are such events, WMO’s programmes provide the vital information for the advance warnings that save many lives and reduce damage to property and the environment. Human induced disasters chemistry, nuclear and forest fire . Numerous studies have shown that, apart from the incalculable benefit to human well-being, every dollar invested in meteorological and hydrological services produces an economic return many times greater, often ten times or more.
The vision of the WMO for the Sixth Long-term Plan (2004-2011) is to provide world leadership in expertise and international cooperation in weather, climate, hydrology and water resources, and related environmental issues, and thereby to contribute to the safety and well being of people throughout the world and to the economic benefit of all nations.
WMO Purposes
To facilitate world-wide cooperation in the establishment of networks of stations for the making of meteorological as well as hydrological and other geophysical observations related to meteorology, and to promote the establishment and maintenance of centres charged with the provision of meteorological and related services;
- To promote the establishment and maintenance of systems for the rapid exchange of meteorological and related information;
- To promote the standardization of meteorological and related observations and to ensure the uniform publication of observations and statistics;
-To further the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, water problems, agriculture and other human activities;
- To promote activities in operational hydrology and to further close co-operation between Meteorological and Hydrological Services;
- To encourage research and training in meteorology and, as appropriate, in related fields and to assist in coordinating the international aspects of such research and training
WMO Structure
The World Meteorological Congress, the supreme body of the Organization, brings together the delegates of Members once every four years to determine general policies for the fulfilment of the purposes of the Organization, to approve long-term plans, to authorize maxi-mum expenditures for the following financial period, to adopt Technical Regulations relating to international meteorological and operational hydrological practice, to elect the President and Vice-Presidents of the Organization and members of the Executive Council and to appoint the Secretary-General.
The Executive Council, the executive body of the Organization and is responsible to Congress for the coordination of the programmes of the organization and of the utilization of its budgetary resources in accordance with the decision of Congress. composed of 37 directors of National Meteorological or Hydrometeorological Services, meets at least once a year to review the activities of the Organization and to implement the programmes approved by Congress.
The six regional associations (Africa, Asia, South America, North America, Central America and the Caribbean, South-West Pacific and Europe), composed of Members, coordinate meteorological and related activities within their respective Regions.
The eight technical commissions, composed of experts designated by Members, study matters within their specific areas of competence (technical commissions have been established for basic systems, instruments and methods of observation, atmospheric sciences, aeronautical meteorology, agricultural meteorology, oceanography and marine meteorology jointly with IOC of UNESCO, hydrology, and climatology).
The Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General, serves as the administrative, documentation and information centre of the Organization. It prepares, edits, produces and distributes the publications of the Organization, carries out the duties specified in the Convention and other Basic Documents and provides secretariat support to the work of the constituent bodies of WMO described above.

United Nations Educational Scientific &
Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), agency of the United Nations established in 1946 to encourage collaboration among nations in the areas of education, science, culture, and communication. Through such cooperative endeavors, UNESCO hopes to encourage universal respect for justice, laws, human rights, and fundamental freedoms. The organization’s founding statement declares that “peace must therefore be founded, if it is not to fail, upon the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind.”
More than 180 nations belong to UNESCO. The agency has its headquarters in Paris, France, and operates educational, scientific, and cultural programs and exchanges from 60 field offices worldwide. Projects sponsored by UNESCO include international science programs; literacy, technical, and teacher-training programs; regional and cultural history projects; and international cooperation agreements to secure the world’s cultural and natural heritage and to preserve human rights.
Withdrawlal of the United States and the United Kingdom
In 1984 the United States withdrew from UNESCO. the United Kingdom left the organization in 1985. Together, these two nations accounted for 30 percent of the UNESCO budget. Their decisions to withdraw resulted from concerns about corruption and waste within the agency and a perception of anti-Western bias in its statements and activities.
Criticism of UNESCO in the early 1980s centered on the autocratic management style of the agency’s general director, Amadou-Mahtar M’Bow of Senegal. Excessive spending on consultants, social functions, and projects of dubious merit characterized M’Bow’s tenure. M’Bow also shifted resources from field offices into the Paris headquarters. By 1984 six employees worked in the Paris office for every worker in the field, and 80 percent of the agency’s budget supported administrative expenses in Paris.
At the same time, controversy surrounded UNESCO’s willingness to support efforts by non-Western governments to establish a New World Information and Communications Order (NWICO). Advocates of the NWICO argued that journalists from Western, industrialized nations both dominated and distorted press coverage in developing nations. NWICO reform proposals included requirements that journalists be licensed by national governments and that balance in news coverage be guaranteed. The U.S. government, along with many American journalists, opposed the NWICO. They argued these proposals would result in government control of the press and would destroy international standards of press freedom.
Reform efforts
In the years since the United States and the United Kingdom withdrew from UNESCO the agency has tried to lure these countries back by reforming its operations. In 1987 Spanish biochemist Federico Mayor succeeded M’Bow as director general. Since then, UNESCO has slashed payroll levels by nearly 50 percent and implemented new procedures to control spending and to evaluate programs and personnel. UNESCO has refocused on educational and scientific field projects. The agency has also abandoned its efforts to create a new information order linked to government control of the press. Although the United States and the United Kingdom have not committed to rejoining UNESCO, the prospects for their return have improved significantly since the late 1980s.
A unifying theme
UNESCO contributing to peace and human development in an era of globalization through education, the sciences, culture and communication.
Three main strategic thrusts
- Developing and promoting universal principles and norms, based on shared values, in order to meet emerging challenges in education, science, culture and communication and to protect and strengthen the “common public good” ;
- Promoting pluralism, through recognition and safeguarding of diversity together with the observance of human rights;
- Promoting empowerment and participation in the emerging knowledge society through equitable access, capacity-building and sharing of knowledge.
Strategic objectives
Education
- Promoting education as a fundamental right in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights;
- Improving the quality of education through the diversification of contents and methods and the promotion of universally shared values ;
- Promoting experimentation, innovation and the diffusion and sharing of information and best practices as well as policy dialogue in education.
Sciences
- Promoting principles and ethical norms to guide scientific and technological development and social transformation ;
- Improving human security by better management of the environment and social change
- Enhancing scientific, technical and human capacities to participate in the emerging.
knowledge societies
Culture
- Promoting the drafting and implementation of standard-setting instruments in the cultural field ;
- Safeguarding cultural diversity and encouraging dialogue among cultures and civilizations ;
- Enhancing the linkages between culture and development, through capacity-building and sharing of knowledge.
Communication and Information
- Promoting the free flow of ideas and universal access to information ;
- Promoting the expression of pluralism and cultural diversity in the media and world information networks ;
- Access for all to information and communication technologies, especially in the public domain.

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

Every fourth year, the Director General is required to present a "plan for the medium term" covering four years following the biennial period for which he presents, at the same time, a draft program and budget. The last such plan was presented to Member States in 1999.
The current document presents a Medium-term Plan for WIPO programs and activities highlighting the vision and strategic direction of WIPO for the four-year period from 2006 to 2009 following the 2004-2005 biennium.
Vision
The main objectives of the Medium-term Plan, as expressed in the past remain constant: maintenance and further development of the respect for intellectual property throughout the world. This means that any erosion of the existing protection should be prevented, and that both the acquisition of the protection and, once acquired, its enforcement, should be simpler, cheaper and more secure.
The objectives mentioned above are mandated by the Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization, Article 3 of which clearly states:
'(i) to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world through cooperation among States and, where appropriate, in collaboration with any other international organization,
'(ii) to ensure administrative cooperation among the Unions.'
The 21st Century is a century of many challenges- including bridging the widening knowledge divide, the reduction of poverty, and the attainment of prosperity for all. The success of a country in meeting these challenges will depend upon its ability to develop, utilize and protect its national creativity and innovation. An effective intellectual property (IP) system allied to pro-active policy-making and focused strategic planning, will help such a nation promote and protect its intellectual assets, driving economic growth and wealth creation.
In this context, there is a widely recognized need to enhance and develop the objectives stated in the WIPO Convention in order to enable the Organization to better assist Member States in meeting the challenges of the changing world.
Thus, WIPO's objective for the new century is the promotion of the effective protection and use of intellectual property throughout the world through cooperation with and among Member States and all other stakeholders. This is to be achieved by creating an environment and infrastructure conducive to an enhanced understanding of the contribution of IP to human life through economic, social and cultural development, and, in particular, by assisting developing countries in their capacity building for greater access to, and use of, the IP system. WIPO seeks to continually enhance its role as the leading international organization, and the UN specialized agency, responsible for initiatives in respect of effective international cooperation in the area of IP.
It is recalled that, in September 1999, Member States noted with satisfaction the content of document A/34/3 "Vision and Strategic Direction of WIPO," which contained a Medium-term Plan for the period from 2002 to 2005. It is further recalled that the plan listed several priority areas identified by the Organization as being of key importance in responding to the challenges facing Member States. They included demystification, empowerment, collective leadership, synergies, promotion of creative and innovative activity, progressive development and codification of international IP law, global protection systems and services and the global cooperation system. In order to strengthen its effectiveness in responding to the needs of Member States in these and other areas, WIPO has modernized its infrastructure and improved its management, and has also, over the last four years, introduced several new initiatives to deal with the dynamic and rapid evolution of the IP-related environment. Much progress has been made, for example, the demystification campaign, in particular, has heightened understanding among leaders and policy-makers worldwide of the importance of IP as a policy tool for the economic, social and cultural development of all countries.
Against this backdrop and to consolidate what has been achieved, it is proposed that the next medium-term plan, for 2006 to 2009, should continue to reflect "the central role of IP as an important tool for social development, economic growth and wealth creation" (document A/38/3). It will also seek to enhance global understanding of IP as "the foundation of human existence and co-existence," [which] "is foreign to no culture and native to all nations" (document A/38/3). Therefore, WIPO's major objective can be said to be making IP "closer to people recognizing the diversity of cultures, origins and systems"
Policy Framework
1To realize the above, a policy framework will be established on the basis of the principles developed during the current Medium-term Plan. These are:
- IP is an important factor in fostering creativity and invention, which are the driving forces in a knowledge-based economy.
- Every country should be encouraged to develop an IP culture appropriate to its needs, including a focused national IP strategy, the most suitable national IP system, and the fostering of a nation-wide perception of IP (both at the policy planning and grass-roots levels) as a powerful tool for economic, social and cultural development.
- The IP system, including its legal and institutional infrastructure and human resources capacity, should meet national policy objectives. It should also be effective, affordable and easily accessible to all stakeholders, including individuals and Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs).
- The IP system should maintain a balance between the interests of the holders of intellectual property rights (IPRs) and those of the public at large. While being mindful of national policy objectives, it should also be consistent with international IP laws and international agreements.
- WIPO's global protection systems and services (i.e., the PCT, Madrid, Hague and Lisbon systems) as well as the services of the WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center, should continue to be effective, of high quality, and geared to meeting the needs of users, including innovators, researchers, entrepreneurs, particularly SMEs, and academic institutions.
- As the specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for IP, WIPO's activities include leadership initiatives in that field with a view to increasing cooperation with other UN bodies and heightening awareness among them as well as among the general public and policy-makers, of the role of IP within the framework of the UN Millennium Development Goals.
-WIPO's cooperation with governments and the private sector should be reinforced to enhance technical assistance in favor of developing countries and countries in transition to a market economy. This includes the necessary support in capacity building and the development of appropriate infrastructures, as well as the strengthening of human resources.
- Modernization of program, budget and accounting practices will ensure greater openness, transparency and efficiency in the management and implementation of activities.
Strategic Goals
In transforming WIPO's vision into reality, strategic goals are set out as follows:
- Promotion of an IP culture; on the one hand, to encourage creators and innovators to obtain, use and license IP rights and assets, and, on the other hand, to seek greater respect by the public for IP rights and assets. This will include making resources and expertise available to assist Member States in their own efforts to develop an IP culture through cooperation with governments, intergovernmental organizations and partners in private sectors.
- Development of balanced international IP laws which are: responsive to emerging needs; effective in encouraging innovation and creation; and sufficiently flexible to accommodate national policy objectives.
- Provision of consistent and customized assistance to Member States in developing national/regional IP systems, including legal infrastructure, institutional framework and human resources.
- Enhancement of global protection systems to make them more easily accessible and affordable to all stakeholders, in particular.
- Further streamlining of the management and administrative processes within WIPO to intensify efforts to achieve greater efficiency as well as the initiation of improved monitoring and evaluation systems to examine the achievement of expected results. Operational Principles for the Implementation of Programs
In each program area, specific priority-setting guidelines will be provided, based on the following operational principles:
- Program priorities will be established according to WIPO's strategic goals and the needs identified by Member States, as well as WIPO's expertise in delivering such program activities;
- Each program will be designed to ensure sufficient flexibility to respond to the evolving needs of Member States.
- Program activities should be cost-effective and with concrete deliverables;
- Programs will be individually tailored, wherever possible, in consultation with Member States, so as to promote sustainability of the results;
- Cooperation with other institutions will be encouraged, as much as possible, to achieve the greatest cost effectiveness.
Indicators for Program Evaluation
Performance indicators included in the draft Program and Budget for the 2004-2005 biennium in respect of all program activities (document WO/PBC/7/2) take into consideration one or more of the following broad indicators, which will be utilized in evaluating the success of WIPO's programs. These concern the impact of the activity on:
- IP policy of Member States;
- integration of IP policy into the cultural-socio-economic policies of Member States;
- enhancement and development, in quantity and quality, of IP rights and assets obtained by nationals in Member States;
- the number of accessions or ratifications, the geographical coverage and the effective use of treaties administered by WIPO;
- number and range of users of WIPO's global protection systems;
- status and functions of IP-related institutions (effective IP offices and copyright collective management societies, competent courts and customs offices for IP enforcement, etc.);
- number of people who benefited under WIPO programs, including government officials, innovators, academic researchers, IP practitioners, etc.
Strategic Deliverables
As briefly outlined in the speech made by the Director General on his re-appointment by Member States in May 2003 (document A/38/3), WIPO's activities will be grouped into five areas, each with specific deliverables, as indicated below.
(a) Modernization of Management
- Enhancement of program and budget process and efficient implementation of program activities;
- Consolidation and leveraging of IT-based tools;
- Enhanced efficiency in PCT, Madrid and Hague systems operations.
(b) IP Outreach and Support
- Better understanding of the cultural and social dimension of IP-related issues;
- Development of tools/guidelines to assist in building greater public awareness and understanding of IP and its role and more wide-spread respect for IPRs;
- Enhanced use of IP by SMEs.
(c) Cooperation for Development
- Strengthening of IP's role in the development of national policy (supported with analyses of the economic impact of IP);
- Strengthening of national human resource capabilities, including training of IP professionals (e.g., training of trainers);
- Deployment of online tools for small IP Offices via WIPONET;
- Further development of customized regional/national action plans;
- Continuing assistance in IP Office automation.
(d) IP Issues and Progressive Development and Codification of International IP Law
- Better accessibility to the patent system through the WIPO Patent Agenda, including ongoing work on the draft Substantive Patent Law Treaty;
- Further development of harmonized principles and procedural and substantive aspects of the law of trademarks and industrial designs;
- Responses to new technologies, particularly the implementation of the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT);
- Continuation of consultations on broadcasting rights and of negotiations to establish an international instrument for the protection of audiovisual performers;
- Continuation of the Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore with a view to strengthening the framework of protection;
- Use, where necessary, of "soft-law" solutions for certain issues.
(e) Global IP Protection Systems and Services
- Progressive reform of the PCT and implementation of the results;
- Expansion of the Madrid and Hague systems;
- Expansion of the WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center's services to include a wider range of IP disputes.
The draft program and budget for the 2004-2005 biennium (document WO/PBC/7/2) proposes, in detail, activities which are expected to contribute to the realization of such deliverables and the process to be taken to implement them. Political imagination, goodwill and collaboration among Member States, the private sector and the Secretariat are key elements in the success of WIPO's mission and realization of its vision.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

On Dec. 8, 1953, President Eisenhower, speaking to the UN General Assembly, called for the creation of a world organization to promote the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. In 1954 interested nations began to work on a preliminary constitution for the Agency which was submitted to a conference convened in New York in September 1956. To it all member states of the United Nations and of the Specialized Agencies were invited; 81 attended and after considering many proposals for amendment approved unanimously the Statute of the IAEA on Oct. 26, 1956. In the period allowed for signature, 80 governments signed. The Statute was to come into force upon the deposit of ratifications by 18 states including at least three from the following: Canada, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. A preparatory commission was set up to make arrangements for the first General Conference. Vienna was chosen as the Agency's headquarters. The Statute entered into force on July 29, 1957.
The object of the Agency is "to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world." To this end it may serve as an intermediary in securing services or supplying materials, equipment, or facilities; it may have its own materials and develop its own services, equipment, and facilities; it may foster the exchange of information and encourage the training of experts; it may develop safeguards to ensure that its program is not used for other than peaceful purposes and may formulate standards to safeguard health and property. The Agency may thus have its own program for research and production. It may serve as a world bank of basic nuclear fuels with storage facilities so arranged as to prevent extensive stockpiling in any one area of the world. It may have its own inspectors with access to all persons, places, and data involved in agency-assisted projects.
The Agency has a General Conference and a Board of Governors. The General Conference is composed of all members, each with one vote, and meets in regular annual sessions. The Board is selected by a somewhat complicated formula based on the division of the world into eight geographical areas. It will include the five members who are most advanced in the technology of atomic energy, and the most advanced member from each of the areas not already represented among the five; two members chosen by the outgoing Board from a designated list of producers of source materials, and one so chosen representing a supplier of technical assistance; and ten members elected by the General Conference, five each year for a two-year term, with the requirement that each of the regions except North America must be represented in this group. The Board so constituted includes at present 23 members, each with one vote. It controls its own time of meeting. Decisions in both bodies are by a two-thirds majority of those present and voting in regard to certain designated matters, and by a majority of those present and voting in all other matters including additions to the former category. New members of the Agency may be admitted by the General Conference on the recommendation of the Board of Governors if they are believed able and willing to carry out the obligations of membership. A permanent staff of qualified personnel necessary to fulfill the objectives and functions of the Agency is headed by a Director-General appointed by the Board with the approval of the General Conference for a term of four years.
The first General Conference met in Vienna Oct. 1-23, 1957. W. Sterling Cole of the United States was named the first Director-General. A member of the United States Congress for 23 years, he had been on the Joint Congressional Committee on Atomic Energy since its establishment. He was a member of the delegation of the United States to the conference which adopted the Statute. The United States has made 5,000 kg of fissionable material available to the Agency with an additional promise to match contributions of other countries until July 1960. Russian attempts to obtain some status for the Communist governments of China and East Germany failed.
International Atomic Energy Agency
Following nearly four years of effort and planning, the International Atomic Energy Agency became a reality on July 29, when the required number of ratification documents had been deposited in Washington. The first annual meeting of the Agency's General Conference convened in Vienna on October 1, and among its priority decisions it approved a draft agreement governing the Agency's relationship with the United Nations. On November 14, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously approved this relationship agreement.
The IAEA, under the aegis of the United Nations, is responsible for international activities concerned with the peaceful uses of atomic energy, without prejudice to the rights and responsibilities of the United Nations in this field under the Charter. The IAEA undertakes to conduct its activities in accordance with the purposes and principles of the United Nations Charter to promote peace and international co-operation, and in conformity with United Nations policies furthering the establishment of safeguarded worldwide disarmament. The agreement specifies that the Agency will keep the United Nations informed of its activities by annual reports to the General Assembly and, as appropriate, reports to the Security Council and the Economic and Social Council. The UN Secretary-General will report, as appropriate, on the common activities of the United Nations and the Agency. Each organization is to make available to the other such information and special studies as may be requested. The United Nations-IAEA agreement provides that the Agency may propose items for consideration by the United Nations, and that the United Nations may propose items for consideration by the Agency. Agency and United Nations Secretariat staffs will maintain a close working relationship in accordance with arrangements to be agreed upon.

International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development or World Bank, specialized United Nations agency established at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. A related institution, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), was created at the same time. The chief objectives of the bank, as stated in the articles of agreement, are “to assist in the reconstruction and development of territories of members by facilitating the investment of capital for productive purposes and to promote private foreign investment by means of guarantees or participation in loans[and to supplement private investment by providing, on suitable conditions, finance for productive purposes out of its own capital…”
The bank grants loans only to member nations, for the purpose of financing specific projects. Before a nation can secure a loan, advisers and experts representing the bank must determine that the prospective borrower can meet conditions stipulated by the bank. Most of these conditions are designed to ensure that loans will be used productively and that they will be repaid. The bank requires that the borrower be unable to secure a loan for the particular project from any other source on reasonable terms and that the prospective project be technically feasible and economically sound. To ensure repayment, member governments must guarantee loans made to private concerns within their territories. After the loan has been made, the bank requires periodic reports both from the borrower and from its own observers on the use of the loan and on the progress of the project.
In the early period of the World Bank's existence, loans were granted chiefly to European countries and were used for the reconstruction of industries damaged or destroyed during World War II. Since the late 1960s, however, most loans have been granted to economically developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In the 1980s the bank gave particular attention to projects that could directly benefit the poorest people in developing nations by helping them to raise their productivity and to gain access to such necessities as safe water and waste-disposal facilities, health care, family-planning assistance, nutrition, education, and housing. Direct involvement of the poorest people in economic activity was being promoted by providing loans for agriculture and rural development, small-scale enterprises, and urban development. The bank also was expanding its assistance to energy development and ecological concerns.
Sources of Funds
Subscriptions to, or purchase of, capital shares are worth SDR 100,000 (about $120,000) each. The minimum number of shares that a member nation must purchase varies according to the relative strength of its national economy. Not all the funds subscribed are immediately available to the bank; only about 8.5 percent of the capital subscription of each member nation actually is paid into the bank (a total of $7.3 billion in mid-1987). The remainder is to be deposited only if, and to the extent that, the bank calls for the money in order to pay its own obligations to creditors. There has never been a need to call in capital. The bank's working funds are derived from sales of its interest-bearing bonds and notes in capital markets of the world, from repayment of earlier loans, and from profits on its own operations. It has earned profits every year since 1947.
All powers of the bank are vested in a board of governors, comprising one governor appointed by each member nation. The board meets at least once annually. The governors delegate most of their powers to 24 executive directors, who meet regularly at the central headquarters of the bank in Washington, D.C. Five of the executive directors are appointed by the five member states that hold the largest number of capital shares in the bank. The remaining 19 directors are elected by the governors from the other member nations and serve 2-year terms. The executive directors are headed by the president of the World Bank, whom they elect for a 5-year term, and who must be neither a governor nor a director. The bank currently has 183 members.
Affiliates
The bank has two affiliates: the International Finance Corporation (IFC), established in 1956; and the International Development Association (IDA), established in 1960. Membership in the bank is a prerequisite for membership in either the IFC or the IDA. All three institutions share the same president and boards of governors and executive directors.
IDA is the bank's concessionary lending affiliate, designed to provide development finance for those countries that do not qualify for loans at market-based interest rates. IDA soft loans, or “credits,” are longer term than those of the bank and bear no interest; only an annual service charge of 0.75 percent is made. The IDA depends for its funds on subscriptions from its most prosperous members and on transfers of income from the bank. The IDA had 161 members in 2001.
All three institutions are legally and financially separate, but the bank and IDA share the same staff; IFC, with 174 members, has its own operating and legal staff, but uses administrative and other services of the bank. Membership in the International Monetary Fund is a prerequisite for membership in the World Bank and its affiliates.

The International Monetary Fund
(IMF)
The International Monetary Fund was established by international treaty in 1945 to help promote the health of the world economy. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., it is governed by its almost global membership of 184 countries. The IMF is the central institution of the international monetary system—the system of international payments and exchange rates among national currencies that enables business to take place between countries.It aims to prevent crises in the system by encouraging countries to adopt sound economic policies; it is also—as its name suggests—a fund that can be tapped by members needing temporary financing to address balance of payments problems.
The IMF works for global prosperity by promoting
- the balanced expansion of world trade,
- stability of exchange rates,
- avoidance of competitive devaluations, and orderly correction of balance of payments problems
The IMF's statutory purposes include promoting the balanced expansion of world trade, the stability of exchange rates, the avoidance of competitive currency devaluations, and the orderly correction of a country's balance of payments problems. To serve these purposes, the IMF:
- monitors economic and financial developments and policies, in member countries and at the global level, and gives policy advice to its members based on its more than fifty years of experience.
- lends to member countries with balance of payments problems, not just to provide temporary financing but to support adjustment and reform policies aimed at correcting the underlying problems.
- provides the governments and central banks of its member countries with technical assistance and training in its areas of expertise.
As the only international agency whose mandated activities involve active dialogue with virtually every country on economic policies, the IMF is the principal forum for discussing not only national economic policies in a global context, but also issues important to the stability of the international monetary and financial system. These include countries' choice of exchange rate arrangements, the avoidance of destabilizing international capital flows, and the design of internationally recognized standards and codes for policies and institutions.
By working to strengthen the international financial system and to accelerate progress toward reducing poverty, as well as promoting sound economic policies among all its member countries, the IMF is helping to make globalization work for the benefit of all.
The Origins of the IMF
The IMF was conceived in July 1944 at an international conference held at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, U.S.A., when delegates from 44 governments agreed on a framework for economic cooperation partly designed to avoid a repetition of the disastrous economic policies that had contributed to the Great Depression of the 1930s.
During that decade, as economic activity in the major industrial countries weakened, countries attempted to defend their economies by increasing restrictions on imports; but this just worsened the downward spiral in world trade, output, and employment. To conserve dwindling reserves of gold and foreign exchange, some countries curtailed their citizens' freedom to buy abroad, some devalued their currencies, and some introduced complicated restrictions on their citizens' freedom to hold foreign exchange. These fixes, however, also proved self-defeating, and no country was able to maintain its competitive edge for long. Such "beggar-thy-neighbor" policies devastated the international economy; world trade declined sharply, as did employment and living standards in many countries.
As World War II came to a close, the leading allied countries considered various plans to restore order to international monetary relations, and at the Bretton Woods conference the IMF emerged. The country representatives drew up the charter (or Articles of Agreement) of an international institution to oversee the international monetary system and to promote both the elimination of exchange restrictions relating to trade in goods and services, and the stability of exchange rates.The IMF came into existence in December 1945, when the first 29 countries signed its Articles of Agreement.
The statutory purposes of the IMF today are the same as when they were formulated in 1944 Since then, the world has experienced unprecedented growth in real incomes. And although the benefits of growth have not flowed equally to all—either within or among nations—most countries have seen increases in prosperity that contrast starkly with the interwar period, in particular. Part of the explanation lies in improvements in the conduct of economic policy, including policies that have encouraged the growth of international trade and helped smooth the economic cycle of boom and bust. The IMF is proud to have contributed to these developments.
In the decades since World War II, apart from rising prosperity, the world economy and monetary system have undergone other major changes-changes that have increased the importance and relevance of the purposes served by the IMF, but that have also required the IMF to adapt and reform. Rapid advances in technology and communications have contributed to the increasing international integration of markets and to closer linkages among national economies. As a result, financial crises, when they erupt, now tend to spread more rapidly among countries.
The IMF's purposes have also become more important simply because of the expansion of its membership. The number of IMF member countries has more than quadrupled from the 44 states involved in its establishment, reflecting in particular the attainment of political independence by many developing countries and more recently the collapse of the Soviet bloc.
The IMF's Purposes
The purposes of the International Monetary Fund are:
- To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution which provides the machinery for consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems.
- To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, and to contribute thereby to the promotion and maintenance of high levels of employment and real income and to the development of the productive resources of all members as primary objectives of economic policy.
- To promote exchange stability, to maintain orderly exchange arrangements among members, and to avoid competitive exchange depreciation.
- To assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments in respect of current transactions between members and in the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions which hamper the growth of world trade.
- To give confidence to members by making the general resources of the Fund temporarily available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity.
- In accordance with the above, to shorten the duration and lessen the degree of disequilibrium in the international balances of payments of members.
IMF members have been free to choose any form of exchange arrangement they wish (except pegging their currency to gold): some now allow their currency to float freely, some peg their currency to another currency or a group of currencies, some have adopted the currency of another country as their own, and some participate in currency blocs.
At the same time as the IMF was created, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), more commonly known as the World Bank, was set up to promote long-term economic development, including through the financing of infrastructure projects, such as road-building and improving water supply.
The IMF and the World Bank Group - which includes the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the International Development Association (IDA) - complement each other's work. While the IMF's focus is chiefly on macroeconomic performance, and on macroeconomic and financial sector policies, the World Bank is concerned mainly with longer-term development and poverty reduction issues. Its activities include lending to developing countries and countries in transition to finance infrastructure projects, the reform of particular sectors of the economy, and broader structural reforms. The IMF, in contrast, provides financing not for particular sectors or projects but for general support of a country's balance of payments and international reserves while the country takes policy action to address its difficulties.
When the IMF and World Bank were established, an organization to promote world trade liberalization was also contemplated, but it was not until 1995 that the World Trade Organization was set up. In the intervening years, trade issues were tackled through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
Decisions at the IMF
The IMF is accountable to its member countries, and this accountability is essential to its effectiveness. The day-today work of the IMF is carried out by an Executive Board, representing the IMF's 184 members, and an internationally recruited staff under the leadership of a Managing Director and three Deputy Managing Directors—each member of this management team being drawn from a different region of the world. The powers of the Executive Board to conduct the business of the IMF are delegated to it by the Board of Governors, which is where ultimate oversight rests.
The Board of Governors, on which all member countries are represented, is the highest authority governing the IMF. It usually meets once a year, at the Annual Meetings of the IMF and the World Bank. Each member country appoints a Governor—usually the country's minister of finance or the governor of its central bank - and an Alternate Governor. The Board of Governors decides on major policy issues but has delegated day-to-day decision-making to the Executive Board.
Key policy issues relating to the international monetary system are considered twice-yearly in a committee of Governors called the International Monetary and Financial Committee, or IMFC (until September 1999 known as the Interim Committee). A joint committee of the Boards of Governors of the IMF and World Bank called the Development Committee advises and reports to the Governors on development policy and other matters of concern to developing countries.
The Executive Board consists of 24 Executive Directors, with the Managing Director as chairman. The Executive Board usually meets three times a week, in full-day sessions, and more often if needed, at the organization's headquarters in Washington, D.C. The IMF's five largest shareholders - the United States, Japan, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom - along with China, Russia, and Saudi Arabia, have their own seats on the Board. The other 16 Executive Directors are elected for two-year terms by groups of countries, known as constituencies.
The Executive Board selects the Managing Director, who besides serving as the chairman of the Board, is the chief of the IMF staff and conducts the business of the IMF under the direction of the Executive Board. Appointed for a renewable five-year term, the Managing Director is assisted by a First Deputy Managing Director and two other Deputy Managing Directors.
IMF employees are international civil servants whose responsibility is to the IMF, not to national authorities. The organization has about 2,800 employees recruited from 141 countries. About two-thirds of its professional staff are economists. The IMF's 26 departments and offices are headed by directors, who report to the Managing Director. Most staff work in Washington, although about 90 resident representatives are posted in member countries to help advise on economic policy. The IMF maintains offices in Paris and Tokyo for liaison with other international and regional institutions, and with organizations of civil society; it also has offices in New York and Geneva, mainly for liaison with other institutions in the UN system.
Where Does the IMF Get Its Money?
The IMF's resources come mainly from the quota (or capital) subscriptions that countries pay when they join the IMF, or following periodic reviews in which quotas are increased. Countries pay 25 percent of their quota subscriptions in Special Drawing Rights or major currencies, such as U.S. dollars or Japanese yen; the IMF can call on the remainder, payable in the member's own currency, to be made available for lending as needed. Quotas determine not only a country's subscription payments, but also the amount of financing that it can receive from the IMF, and its share in SDR allocations. Quotas also are the main determinant of countries' voting power in the IMF.
Quotas are intended broadly to reflect members' relative size in the world economy: the larger a country's economy in terms of output, and the larger and more variable its trade, the higher its quota tends to be. The United States of America, the world's largest economy, contributes most to the IMF, 17.5 percent of total quotas; Palau, the world's smallest, contributes 0.001 percent.
If necessary, the IMF may borrow to supplement the resources available from its quotas. The IMF has two sets of standing arrangements to borrow if needed to cope with any threat to the international monetary system:
- the General Arrangements to Borrow (GAB), set up in 1962, which has 11 participants (the governments or central banks of the Group of Ten industrialized countries and Switzerland).
- the New Arrangements to Borrow (NAB), introduced in 1997, with 25 participating countries and institutions. Under the two arrangements combined, the IMF has up to SDR 34 billion (about $50 billion) available to borrow.
Countries that joined the IMF between 1945 and 1971 agreed to keep their exchange rates (in effect, the value of their currencies in terms of the U.S. dollar, and in the case of the United States, the value of the U.S. dollar in terms of gold) pegged at rates that could be adjusted, but only to correct a "fundamental disequilibrium" in the balance of payments and with the IMF's concurrence. This so-called Bretton Woods system of exchange rates prevailed until 1971 when the U.S. government suspended the convertibility of the U.S. dollar (and dollar reserves held by other governments) into gold.
Since then, IMF members have been free to choose any form of exchange arrangement they wish (except pegging their currency to gold): some now allow their currency to float freely, some peg their currency to another currency or a group of currencies, some have adopted the currency of another country as their own, and some participate in currency blocs.
The IMF and the World Bank Group—which includes the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the International Development Association (IDA)—complement each other's work. While the IMF's focus is chiefly on macroeconomic performance, and on macroeconomic and financial sector policies, the World Bank is concerned mainly with longer-term development and poverty reduction issues. Its activities include lending to developing countries and countries in transition to finance infrastructure projects, the reform of particular sectors of the economy, and broader structural reforms. The IMF, in contrast, provides financing not for particular sectors or projects but for general support of a country's balance of payments and international reserves while the country takes policy action to address its difficulties.
When the IMF and World Bank were established, an organization to promote world trade liberalization was also contemplated, but it was not until 1995 that the World Trade Organization was set up. In the intervening years, trade issues were tackled through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
What Is an IMF-Supported Program?
When a country approaches the IMF for financing, it may be in a state of economic crisis or near-crisis, with its currency under attack in foreign exchange markets and its international reserves depleted, economic activity stagnant or falling, and bankruptcies increasing. To return the country's external payments position to health and to restore the conditions for sustainable economic growth, some combination of economic adjustment and official and/or private financing will be needed.
The IMF provides the country's authorities with advice on the economic policies that may be expected to address the problems most effectively. For the IMF also to provide financing, it must agree with the authorities on a program of policies aimed at meeting specific, quantified goals regarding external viability, monetary and financial stability, and sustainable growth. Details of the program are spelled out in a "letter of intent" from the government to the Managing Director of the IMF.
A program supported by IMF financing is designed by the national authorities in close cooperation with IMF staff, and is tailored to the special needs and circumstances of the country. This is essential for the program's effectiveness and for the government to win national support for the program. Such support—or "local ownership"—of the program is critical to its success.
Each program is also designed flexibly, so that, during its implementation, it may be reassessed and revised if circumstances change. Many programs are, in fact, revised during implementation.
Technical Assistance and Training
The IMF is probably best known for its policy advice and its policy-based lending to countries in times of economic crisis. But the IMF also shares its expertise with member countries on a regular basis by providing technical assistance and training in a wide range of areas, such as central banking, monetary and exchange rate policy, tax policy and administration, and official statistics. The objective is to help strengthen the design and implementation of members' economic policies, including by strengthening skills in the institutions responsible, such as finance ministries and central banks. Technical assistance complements the IMF's policy advice and financial assistance to member countries and accounts for some 20 percent of the IMF's administrative costs.
The IMF provides technical assistance and training mainly in four areas:
- strengthening monetary and financial sectors through advice on banking system regulation, supervision, and restructuring, foreign exchange management and operations, clearing and settlement systems for payments, and the structure and development of central banks;
- supporting strong fiscal policies and management through advice on tax and customs policies and administration, budget formulation, expenditure management, design of social safety nets, and the management of internal and external debt;
- compiling, managing, and disseminating statistical data and improving data quality; and
- drafting and reviewing economic and financial legislation.
The IMF offers training courses for government and central bank officials of member countries at its headquarters in Washington and at regional training centers in Brasília, Singapore, Tunis, and Vienna. In the field, it provides technical assistance through visits by IMF staff, supplemented by hired consultants and experts. Supplementary financing for IMF technical assistance and training is provided by the national governments of such countries as Japan and Switzerland, and international agencies such as the European Union, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the United Nations Development Program, and the World Bank.
Strengthening the International Monetary and Financial System
Globalization has created new challenges for the IMF. Two of the most important, and most difficult, are how to strengthen the global financial system—so that it becomes less prone to financial crises and more able to cope with crises when they occur—and how to advance the fight against poverty in low-income countries (see next chapter).
Globalization has yielded great benefits for many countries and people around the world. Integration into the world economy is an essential part of any strategy to enable countries to achieve higher living standards. But globalization, by increasing the volume and speed of international capital flows, has also increased the risk of financial crises. And at the same time, the risk has arisen that low-income countries, which have not yet benefited substantially from globalization, will fall further behind as living standards rise elsewhere.
Building A Stronger Global Financial System
The financial crises in emerging markets in the mid- and late 1990s were a reminder of the risks associated with globalization -even for economies that have benefited immensely from the process and that, in many respects, are well managed. The economies hit in the 1997-98 Asian crisis, in particular, had gained enormously over several decades from international trade, foreign direct investment, and access to increasingly integrated international financial markets. The crises exposed not only policy weaknesses in the crisis countries themselves, but also flaws in the international financial system, driving home two facts of life:
- Investors may retreat quickly and massively if they sense shortcomings in domestic economic policies. Once investors-domestic or foreign-lose confidence, capital inflows can dry up, and large net outflows can precipitate a financial crisis.
- A crisis in one country or region can rapidly spill over into other economies.
To reduce the risk of future financial crises and to promote the speedy resolution of those that do occur, the IMF has been working with its member governments, and with other international organizations, regulatory bodies, and the private sector, to strengthen the international monetary and financial system.
Reforms under way span the following areas:
Strengthening financial sectors
A major reason why a country may be vulnerable to economic crisis is weakness in its financial system, with institutions that are illiquid or insolvent, or liable to become so as a result of adverse developments. To make the system more robust, banks and other financial institutions may need to improve their internal controls, including their assessment and management of risk. The authorities may also need to bring their supervision and regulation of the financial sector up to international standards.
The IMF and the World Bank in 1999 began joint assessments of member countries' financial sectors to help identify actual and potential weaknesses. IMF and World Bank teams, generally with the assistance of experts from central banks and financial regulatory agencies, have been assessing the strength of financial systems in a number of member countries. These assessments are presented to the country as a guide to the measures needed.
IMF staff are also working with national governments and other international institutions to:
- strengthen the legal, regulatory, and supervisory frameworks for banks,
- review minimum capital requirements for banks and financial institutions,
- develop a core set of international accounting standards,
- finalize a set of core principles for good corporate governance,
- avoid exchange rate regimes that are vulnerable to attack, and
- ensure a freer flow of timely financial data to markets.
Internationally accepted standards and codes of good practice
Countries can reassure the international community about their policies and practices by following internationally accepted standards and codes of good practice. For countries that do not do so, international standards and codes serve as a guide for strengthening their systems. The IMF has worked to develop and refine voluntary standards in areas of its responsibility, in some cases cooperating with other international organizations, such as the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) and the World Bank. These include standards related to a country's statistical practices; codes of good practice in fiscal, monetary, and financial policies; and guidelines on strengthening the financial sector—such as banking system supervision and regulatory standards.
Complementing the work of the IMF have been the efforts of the BIS, World Bank, and other standard-setting agencies, which have been working on international standards in such areas as accounting and auditing, bankruptcy, corporate governance, securities market regulation, and payment and settlement systems.
To help countries assess their own compliance, IMF staff, in conjunction with the respective governments, began in 1999 to prepare experimental country reports on countries' observance of standards and codes, focusing mainly on areas of direct operational concern to the IMF. Several countries have chosen to publish these reports.
Encouraging openness and publication of data
The publication of up-to-date and reliable data—as well as information about countries' economic and financial policies, practices, and decision- making—is needed to help investors make informed judgments and for markets to operate efficiently and smoothly. In the wake of the Mexican crisis of 1994-95, the IMF in 1996 developed a special data dissemination standard (SDDS) to guide countries that have, or that might seek, access to international capital markets in the dissemination of economic and financial data to the public. Subscribing countries agree to publish detailed national economic and financial data, including data on international reserves and external debt, on an announced schedule. A general data dissemination system (GDDS) was established in 1997 to guide countries that are not yet in a position to subscribe to the SDDS and need to improve their statistical systems.
IMF transparency and accountability
Improved provision of information to the markets and the broader public is a central element of the reform of the international financial system. It is also a cornerstone of the recent and continuing reform of the IMF itself.
Transparency, on the part of IMF member countries and the IMF, helps foster better economic performance in several ways. Greater openness by member countries encourages more widespread and better informed analysis of their policies by the public; enhances the accountability of policymakers and the credibility of policies; and informs financial markets so that they can function in a more orderly and efficient manner. Greater openness and clarity by the IMF about its own policies, and the advice it gives members, contribute to a more informed policy debate and to a better understanding of the IMF's role and operations. By exposing its advice to public scrutiny and debate, the IMF can also help raise the level of its analysis.
Since the mid-1990s, the IMF has vastly increased the volume of information it publishes—on its own activities and policies, and on those of its member countries—particularly on its website. Public Information Notices, for example, which were released at the conclusion of Article IV consultations with about 80 percent of member countries in 1999-2000, summarize the Executive Board discussion and provide background to the consultation. Letters of intent are also released by the governments concerned in about 80 percent of program cases. In April 1999, the Executive Board initiated a pilot project for the voluntary release of Article IV staff reports, and about 60 countries agreed to such release over the following 18 months. In November 2000, the pilot was replaced by a publication policy providing for voluntary release (that is, subject to the agreement of the country concerned) of both Article IV consultation papers and papers on members' use of IMF resources. In July 2004, the policy was revised to introduce the presumption that these papers would be released on a voluntary basis.
The accountability of the IMF, to its member governments and to the broader public, has been enhanced in recent years through external evaluations by outside experts of its policies and activities. Published external evaluations include assessments of the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (which was replaced in 1999 by the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility), its surveillance of members' economies, and IMF economic research activities. An Independent Evaluation Office was established in 2001, and released three evaluation reports during 2002-03.
While increasing the transparency of the IMF, the Executive Board is also keenly aware of the need to preserve the IMF's role as a confidential advisor to its members, which continues to be an essential part of its role.
Involving the private sector in crisis prevention and resolution
By far the greater part of international financial flows are private flows. This points to the importance of the role that the private sector can play in helping to prevent and resolve financial crises. Crises may be prevented, and the volatility of private flows reduced, by improved risk assessment and closer and more frequent dialogue between countries and private investors. Such dialogue can also foster greater private sector involvement in the resolution of crises when they do occur, including through the restructuring of private debt.
Both creditors and debtors can benefit from such dialogue. And the involvement of the private sector in crisis prevention and resolution should also help to limit "moral hazard"—that is, the possibility that the private sector may be attracted to engage in risky lending if it is confident that potential losses will be limited by official rescue operations, including by the IMF. The IMF itself is also strengthening its dialogue with market participants, for example through the establishment of the Capital Markets Consultative Group, which met for the first time in September 2000. The Group provides a forum for regular communication between international capital market participants and IMF management and senior staff on matters of common interest, including world economic and market developments and measures to strengthen the global financial system. But the Group does not discuss confidential matters related to particular countries.
When crises do occur, IMF-supported programs are expected to be able, in most cases, to restore stability through their mix of official financing, policy adjustments, and associated gains in confidence among private investors. In certain cases, however, such actions as coordinated debt restructuring by private creditors may be needed. IMF members have agreed on some principles to guide the involvement of the private sector in crisis resolution. These principles, however, require further development, and they will need to be applied flexibly in individual country cases.
Collaborating with other institutions
The IMF collaborates actively with the World Bank, the regional development banks, the World Trade Organization, the United Nations agencies, and other international bodies. Each of these institutions has its area of specialization and its particular contribution to make to the world economy. The IMF's collaboration with the World Bank on poverty reduction is especially close because the Bank rather than the IMF has the expertise to help countries improve their social policies (see next section).
Other areas in which the IMF and World Bank are working closely include assessments of member countries' financial sectors aimed at pinpointing systemic vulnerabilities, combating money laundering and the financing of terrorism, the development of standards and codes, and improving the quality, availability, and coverage of data on external debt.
The IMF is also a member of the Financial Stability Forum, which brings together national authorities responsible for financial stability in significant international financial centers, international regulatory and supervisory bodies, committees of central bank experts, and international financial institutions.
A New Approach to Reducing Poverty in Low-Income Countries
The IMF is a monetary, not a development, institution, but it has an important role to play in reducing poverty in its member countries: sustainable economic growth, which is essential for cutting poverty, requires sound macroeconomic policies, and these are at the heart of the IMF's mandate.
For many years, the IMF has helped low-income countries implement economic policies that foster growth and raise living standards through its advice, its technical assistance, and its financial support. Between 1986 and 1999, 56 countries with populations totaling 3.2 billion drew on low-interest loans under the Structural Adjustment Facility (SAF) (1986-87) and its successor, the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) (1987-89) (see page 27), designed to help the IMF's poorest members in their efforts to achieve stronger economic growth and a sustained improvement in their balance of payments.
These facilities made significant contributions to the development effort in low-income countries, but despite substantial assistance from the IMF and the broad donor community, many of these countries did not achieve the gains needed for lasting poverty reduction.
This prompted an intense reexamination of development and debt strategies in recent years by governments, international organizations, and others. It was agreed that more needed to be done.
At the 1999 joint annual meeting of the IMF and the World Bank, Ministers from member countries endorsed a new approach. They decided to make country- generated poverty reduction strategies the basis of all IMF and World Bank concessional lending and debt relief. This embodied a more country-driven approach to policy programs than in the past.
The New Approach: a focus on serving the poor
Focused poverty reduction strategies can ensure that the needs of the poor get first priority in the public policy debate, especially when there is broad participation—including elements of civil society—in formulating the strategy. Moreover, poverty reduction strategies can put countries "in the driver's seat" of their own development, with a clearly articulated vision for their future and a systematic plan to achieve their goals. Underlying the new approach are a number of principles, which have guided the development of poverty reduction strategies.These include:
- A comprehensive approach to development and a broad view of poverty are essential.
- Faster economic growth is critical for sustained poverty reduction, and greater participation by the poor can increase a country's growth potential.
- Country "ownership" of the goals, strategy, and direction of development and poverty reduction is vital.
- The development community must work together closely.
- The focus should be clearly on results.
A transformation of the magnitude being sought entails changing institutions so that they are accountable to all, including the poor, and building each country's capacity to respond to the needs of its citizens. Results will come only if there is a long-term commitment by governments and their partners. To help achieve this, participating countries draw up a master plan embodied in a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP). This overall plan for reducing poverty makes it easier for the international community-including the IMF-to provide the most effective support possible.
The Roles of the IMF and World Bank
The World Bank and IMF make support available to governments in the development of their strategies, but without directing the outcome. World Bank and IMF management realize that this requires a shift in the organizational cultures and attitude both in these organizations and in partner institutions. This shift is taking place. By coordinating early and maintaining open lines of communication with country authorities—particularly by providing available diagnostic information—the World Bank and IMF can ensure that they help countries in a timely and comprehensive way.
Each institution must focus on its areas of expertise. Thus, World Bank staff take the lead in advising on the social policies involved in poverty reduction, including the necessary diagnostic work. The IMF advises governments in the areas of its traditional mandate, including promoting prudent macroeconomic policies. In areas where the World Bank and the IMF both have expertise—such as fiscal management, budget execution, budget transparency, and tax and customs administration—they coordinate closely.
Because the PRSP provides the context for IMF and World Bank concessional lending and debt relief, the strategies are critical for the two institutions. Participating countries send the final strategy to the Executive Boards of both the IMF and World Bank for endorsement. The Executive Boards of both institutions also receive a World Bank-IMF staff assessment, with an analysis of the strategy and a recommendation on endorsement. The strategies need not be fully in accordance with staff recommendations to be endorsed. This process assures the Executive Boards—and the international community—that the strategies, while perhaps attracting broad domestic support, also address difficult or divisive issues in an effective way.
Formulating Poverty Reduction Strategies
The objective of drawing up a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) is to strengthen basic principles of country ownership, comprehensive development, and broad public participation. While there is no template for this, there are a number of core elements that are likely to be common to all strategies.
Diagnosing obstacles to poverty reduction and growth: A poverty reduction strategy could begin by using existing data to describe who the poor are and where they live, and by identifying areas where data need to be strengthened. Building on this description, the poverty reduction strategy could analyze the macroeconomic, social, and institutional impediments to faster growth and poverty reduction.
Policies and objectives: In light of a deeper understanding of poverty and its causes, the PRSP can then identify medium- and long-term targets for the country's poverty reduction strategy and set out the macroeconomic, structural, and social policies to achieve them.
Tracking progress :To understand better the link between policies and outcomes, a poverty reduction strategy should include a framework for monitoring progress and mechanisms to share this information with a country's development partners.
External assistance: A strategy can also improve the effectiveness and efficiency of external assistance by identifying the amount of financial and technical support required to implement the strategy. It could also assess the potential poverty impact of both higher and lower assistance commitments, including actual savings from debt relief.
Participatory process: A strategy may describe the format, frequency, and location of consultations; a summary of the main issues raised and the views of participants; an account of the impact of consultations on design of the strategy; and a discussion of the role of civil society in future monitoring and implementation
Reducing Debt Burdens
In 1996, the World Bank and the IMF unveiled the HIPC Initiative to reduce the debt burdens of the world's poorest countries. This initiative was viewed as a means of helping the countries concerned achieve economic growth and reduce poverty.
While a number of countries qualified for the initiative—and debt relief in nominal terms totaling more than $6 billion had been committed to seven countries by September 1999—concern grew that the initiative did not go far enough, or fast enough.
Consequently, when the new approach to poverty reduction was introduced in 1999, the initiative was enhanced to provide:
- broader and deeper debt relief, through lower debt targets. For example, the number of countries eligible for debt relief under the enhanced HIPC Initiative is 38, compared with 29 formerly.
- faster debt relief, through financing at an earlier stage of the policy program to free up resources for poverty-reducing spending, such as on health and education.














Part 2
Europe Organizations
Chapter 4
European Union
European Union (EU), organization of European countries dedicated to increasing economic integration and strengthening cooperation among its members. The European Union headquarters is in Brussels, Belgium.
The European Union was formally established on November 1, 1993. It is the most recent in a series of European cooperative organizations that originated with the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) of 1951, which became the European Community (EC) in 1967. The members of the EC were Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and Spain. In 1991 the governments of the 12 member states signed the Treaty on European Union (commonly called the Maastricht Treaty), which was then ratified by the national legislatures of all the member countries. The Maastricht Treaty transformed the EC into the EU. In 1994 Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, bringing the total membership to 15 nations.
The EU has a number of objectives. Primarily, it works to promote and expand cooperation among its members in several areas, including economics and trade, social issues, foreign policy, security, and judicial matters. Another major goal has been to implement Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), which established a single currency for EU members. With the exception of EMU, which went into effect in 1999, progress toward these goals has been erratic. The EU’s ability to achieve its goals has been limited by disagreements among member states, external political and economic problems, and pressure for membership from the new democracies of Eastern Europe.
History of the European Union
The dream of a united Europe is almost as old as Europe itself. The early 9th-century empire of Charlemagne covered much of western Europe. In the early 1800s the French empire of Napoleon I encompassed almost all of the European continent. During World War II (1939-1945), Adolf Hitler nearly succeeded in uniting Europe under Nazi domination. All these efforts failed because they relied on forcibly subjugating other nations rather than cooperating with them.
Attempts to create cooperative organizations fared little better until after World War II. Until that time, nations had strongly opposed all attempts to infringe on their powers and were unwilling to give up any control over their policies. These early organizations were international or intergovernmental organizations that depended on the voluntary cooperation of their members; consequently, they had no direct powers of coercion to enforce their laws or regulations. Supranational organizations, on the other hand, require their members to surrender at least a portion of their control over policy areas and can compel compliance with their mandates. After World War II, proposals for some kind of supranational organization in Europe became increasingly frequent.
Early Cooperation
Postwar proposals for a European supranational organization had both political and economic motives. The political motive was based on the belief that only a supranational organization could eliminate the threat of war between European countries. Some supporters of European political unity, such as the French statesman Jean Monnet, further believed that if the nations of Europe were to resume their dominant role in world affairs, they had to speak with one voice and have at their command resources comparable to those of the United States.
The economic motive rested on the argument that larger markets would promote increased competition and thus lead to higher productivity and standards of living. Economic and political viewpoints merged in the assumptions that economic strength was the basis of political and military power, and that a fully integrated European economy would make conflicts between European nations less likely. Because many countries were concerned about giving up any control over national affairs, most of the practical proposals for supranational organizations assumed that economic integration would precede political unification.
Benelux Customs Union
An early example of a supranational economic organization was the Benelux Customs Union (now the Benelux Economic Union), which provided for a free trade area within Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg, and for a common tariff imposed on goods from outside the Union. Formed in 1948, the union grew from the realization that the economies of the separate states were individually too small to allow them to be competitive in the global market. Belgium and Luxembourg had, in fact, joined in an economic union as early as 1921, and the governments of Belgium and The Netherlands had agreed in principle on a customs union during World War II. Political leaders of these countries have been the warmest advocates of European cooperation and have continued to work for closer economic integration of their own countries independently of broader European developments.
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
The first major step toward European integration took place in 1950. At that time French foreign minister Robert Schuman, advised by Jean Monnet, proposed the integration of the French and German coal and steel industries and invited other nations to participate. Schuman’s motives were as much political as economic. Many Europeans felt that German industry, which was reviving rapidly, needed to be monitored in some way. The ECSC provided an appropriate mechanism since coal and steel are very important to many modern industries, especially the armaments industry.
The Schuman Plan, as it was called, created a supranational agency to oversee aspects of national coal and steel policy such as levels of production and prices. Not coincidentally, this mandate allowed the agency to keep German industry under surveillance and control. Determined to allay fears of German militancy, West Germany immediately signed on and was soon joined by the Benelux nations and Italy. The United Kingdom, concerned about a potential loss of control over its industry, declined to join.
The treaty establishing the ECSC was signed in 1951 and took effect early the following year. It provided for the elimination of tariffs and quotas on trade within the community in iron ore, coal, coke, and steel; a common external tariff on imports relating to the coal and steel industries from other nations; and controls on production and sales. To supervise the operations of the ECSC, the treaty established several supranational bodies: a high authority with executive powers, a council of ministers to safeguard the interests of the member states, a common assembly with advisory authority only, and a court of justice to settle disputes.
European Economic Community (EEC)
In 1957 the participants in the ECSC signed two more treaties in Rome. These treaties created the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for the development of peaceful uses of atomic energy and, most important, the European Economic Community (EEC, often referred to as the Common Market).

The EEC treaty provided for the gradual elimination of import duties and quotas on all trade between member nations and for the institution of a common external tariff. Member nations agreed to implement common policies regarding transportation, agriculture, and social insurance, and to permit the free movement of people and funds within the boundaries of the community. One of the most important provisions of the treaty was that it could not be renounced by just one of the members and that, after a certain amount of time, further community decisions would be made by a majority vote of the member states rather than by unanimous action.
Both the EEC and the Euratom treaties created separate high commissions to oversee their operations. However, it was agreed that the ECSC, EEC, and Euratom would be served by a single council of ministers, representative assembly, and court of justice.
In the preliminaries to the 1957 treaties of Rome, other nations were invited to join the EEC. The United Kingdom objected to the loss of control over national policies implied in European integration and attempted to persuade European nations to create a free trade area instead. After the EEC treaty was ratified, the United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Austria, and Portugal created the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). The EFTA treaty provided only for the elimination of tariffs on industrial products among the member nations. It did not extend to agricultural products, nor did it provide a common external tariff, and members could withdraw at any time. Thus the EFTA was a much weaker union than the Common Market.
In 1961, with the EEC’s apparent economic success, the United Kingdom changed its mind and began negotiations toward EEC membership. In January 1963, however, French president Charles de Gaulle vetoed British membership, primarily because of the United Kingdom’s close ties to the United States. De Gaulle vetoed British admittance a second time in 1967.
European Community (EC)
In July 1967 the three organizations (the EEC, the ECSC, and Euratom) fully merged as the European Community (EC). The basic economic features of the EEC treaty were gradually implemented, and in 1968 all tariffs between member states were eliminated. No progress was made on enlargement of the EC or on any other new proposals, however, until after De Gaulle resigned as president of France in May 1969. The next French president, Georges Pompidou, was more open to new initiatives within the EC.
At Pompidou’s suggestion, a meeting of the leaders of the member states was held in The Hague, The Netherlands, in December 1969. This meeting paved the way for the creation of a permanent financing arrangement for the EC based on contributions from the member states; the development of a framework for foreign policy cooperation among the member nations; and the opening of membership negotiations with the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, and Norway.
Expansion of the EC
In 1972, after nearly two years of negotiations, it was agreed that the four applicant countries would be admitted on January 1, 1973. The United Kingdom, Ireland, and Denmark joined as scheduled; however, in a national referendum, the people of Norway voted against membership.
In the United Kingdom, however, popular opposition to EC membership remained. This opposition was based primarily on the amount of British contributions to the EC budget, which many Britons felt was too high. After the Labour Party regained power in the United Kingdom in 1974, it carried out its election promise to renegotiate British membership conditions in the EC, particularly the financial ones. The renegotiation resulted in only marginal changes. However, the question of whether the United Kingdom would withdraw from the EC and doubts in other countries about the United Kingdom’s commitment to Europe added to the existing uncertainty within the community generated by the economic problems of the 1970s. The Labour government endorsed continued EC membership and called a national referendum on the issue for June 1975. Despite strong opposition from some groups, the British people voted for continued membership.
Single European Act (SEA)
By the 1980s, even though it had existed for more than 30 years, the EC still had not realized the hopes of the most ardent supporters of European unity: a United States of Europe. In fact, despite the removal of internal tariffs, it had not even succeeded in ending all restrictions on trade within the EC, nor in eliminating internal customs frontiers. The admission of the less-developed Mediterranean countries—Greece in 1981, then Spain and Portugal in 1986—introduced a host of new problems. These related primarily to the weaker economies and lower levels of economic development of these states. In particular, the greater reliance of the Mediterranean countries on agriculture meant that a large percentage of funds the EU earmarked to support agriculture within the community would have to be redirected to the new members. This alarmed countries like Ireland, who feared that their own share of these funds would be reduced.
In 1985 the European Council, composed of the heads of state of the EC members, decided to take the next step toward greater integration. In February 1986 they signed the Single European Act (SEA), a package of amendments and additions to the existing EC treaties. The SEA required that the EC adopt more than 300 measures to remove physical, technical, and fiscal barriers in order to establish a single market, where the economies of the member states would be completely integrated. In addition to this, member states agreed to adopt common policies and standards on matters ranging from taxes and employment to health and the environment. Each member state also resolved to bring its economic and monetary policies in line with those of its neighbors.
Creation of the European Union
In the late 1980s, sweeping political changes led the EC once again to increase cooperation and integration. As Communism crumbled in Eastern Europe, many formerly Communist countries looked to the EC for political and economic assistance. The EC agreed to give aid to many of these countries, but decided not to allow them to join the EC immediately. An exception was made for East Germany, which was automatically incorporated into the EC after German reunification.
In the wake of the rapid political upheaval, West Germany and France proposed an intergovernmental conference (IGC) to pursue closer European unity. An IGC is a meeting between members that begins the formal process of changing or amending EC treaties. Another IGC had been established earlier, in 1989, to prepare a timetable and structure for monetary union, in which members of the community would adopt a single currency. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher opposed calls for increased unity, but in 1990 John Major became prime minister and adopted a more conciliatory approach toward the idea of European unity. The IGCs began work on a series of agreements that became the Treaty on European Union.
Treaty on European Union
The Treaty on European Union (often called the Maastricht Treaty) founded the EU and was intended to expand political, economic, and social integration among the member states. After lengthy discussions, it was accepted by the European Council at Maastricht, The Netherlands, in December 1991. It committed the EU to Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Under EMU the member nations would unify their economies and adopt a single currency by 1999. The Maastricht Treaty also set strict criteria that the member states had to meet before they could join EMU. In addition, the treaty created new structures designed to develop a more integrated foreign and security policy and to encourage greater governmental cooperation on judicial and police matters. The member states granted the EU governing bodies more authority in several areas, including the environment, education, health, and consumer protection.
The new treaty aroused a good deal of popular opposition and concern among EU citizens. Many people were worried about EMU, which would replace national currencies with a single European currency. The United Kingdom refused to endorse some elements of the treaty and gained exemptions, called opt-outs, from those elements. These included not joining EMU and not participating in the Social Chapter, a section of the Maastricht Treaty outlining goals in social and employment policy, including a common code of workers’ rights. Danish voters turned down ratification in a referendum, while French voters favored the treaty by only a slim majority. In Germany a challenge to the treaty was lodged with the country’s supreme court, saying that membership in the EU violated Germany’s constitution. In an emergency meeting of the European Council, Denmark gained substantial concessions and exemptions, including the right to opt out of both EMU and any future common defense policy. Danish voters then approved the treaty in a subsequent referendum. Because of these problems, the EU was not formally inaugurated until November 1993.

Amsterdam Treaty
Popular reactions against some aspects and consequences of the Maastricht Treaty led to another intergovernmental conference among EU leaders that began in March 1996. This IGC produced the Amsterdam Treaty, which revised the Maastricht Treaty and other founding EU documents. These changes were intended to make the EU more attractive and relevant to ordinary people.
The Amsterdam Treaty called on member nations to cooperate in creating jobs throughout Europe, protecting the environment, improving public health, and safeguarding consumer rights. Additionally, the treaty provided for the removal of barriers to travel and immigration among the EU member states except for the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Denmark, all of which retained their original border controls. The treaty included the potential for cooperation and integration with the Western European Union (WEU), an organization of Western European powers focused on defense. It also allowed the possibility of admitting Eastern European countries to the EU. The Amsterdam Treaty was signed by EU members on October 2, 1997.
Monetary Union
The EU’s attempts to establish a single European currency, as set out in the Maastricht Treaty, were controversial from the start. For instance, some EU countries, including the United Kingdom, worried that a shared European currency would threaten their national identity and governmental authority. Despite their concerns, many of the EU’s member countries struggled to meet the economic requirements for participating in a shared currency.
These requirements were stringent: (1) a country’s rate of inflation could not be more than 1.5 percent higher than an average of the rate in the three countries with the lowest inflation; (2) a country’s budget deficit could not exceed 3 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), and its government debt could not exceed 60 percent of GDP; (3) a country’s long-term interest rate could not be more than 2 percent higher than an average of the rate in the three countries with the lowest interest rates; (4) a country could not have devalued its currency against any other member nation’s for at least two years prior to EMU.
Most countries found it very difficult to meet all these criteria. Measures to reduce inflation and high interest rates contributed to increasing unemployment, while efforts to control government deficits often led to increased taxation. These consequences compounded the problems of economic recession that most countries were already experiencing.
As the deadline for EMU approached, misgivings arose from many quarters that the economic climate was not right, that levels of economic performance across the countries were still too disparate, and that several countries had not strictly met the Maastricht criteria. However, the EU officially agreed in May 1998 to adopt a single European currency—the euro—for 11 of the 15 member countries beginning on January 1, 1999. This agreement also created the European Central Bank (ECB) to oversee the new currency and to take charge of the monetary policies of the EU. The countries that adopted the euro were Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain.
The United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark met the economic criteria to join in the adoption of the euro but decided not to participate. Greece had hoped to be included in the first wave of countries to adopt the euro but did not meet the criteria. On January 1, 1999, the 11 nations began to use the euro for accounting purposes and electronic money transfers, while continuing to use their national currencies for other uses. Greece adopted the euro in January 2001, becoming the 12th member of the euro zone. In 2002 the ECB began issuing euro-denominated coins and banknotes, and the currency of countries that adopted the euro ceased to be legal tender.
Growing Accountability
The adoption of the euro led to greater integration and cooperation among EU members. One result was a growing concern on the part of EU citizens and some members of the EU government that the major EU institutions were not sufficiently democratic or accountable. This was especially true of the European Commission. As the power of the EU grew, so did concerns that the commission exercised too much control with too little oversight. At the same time, there were also worries that the one democratically elected institution of the EU, the European Parliament, had very little power.
This issue came to a head in 1999, when a report prepared by independent auditors at the request of the European Parliament cited multiple examples of mismanagement on the part of the commission. The report accused several commissioners of corruption, cronyism, and poor oversight over programs under their control. After the report was released, the entire European Commission resigned, something that had never happened before. The sudden resignations caused a great deal of confusion in the short term, but experts generally considered the report and its consequences to be an important step by the European Parliament toward increasing the democratic accountability of the EU governing bodies.

Structure
Pillar System
The members of the EU cooperate in three areas, often referred to as pillars. At the heart of this system is the EC pillar with its supranational functions and its governing institutions. The EC pillar is flanked by two pillars based on intergovernmental cooperation: Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA). These two pillars are a result of the Maastricht agreement to develop closer cooperation in these areas. However, because the members were unwilling to cede authority to supranational institutions, policy decisions in these pillars are made by unanimous cooperation between members and cannot be enforced. For the most part, the governing institutions of the EC pillar have little or no input in the other two.
The CFSP and JHA pillars are based entirely on intergovernmental cooperation, and decisions have to be made unanimously. CFSP is a forum for foreign policy discussions, common declarations, and common actions that work toward developing a security and defense policy. It has successfully developed positions on a range of issues and has established some common policy actions; however, the CFSP has failed to agree on a common security and defense. Some countries, led by France, want an integrated European military force, while others, especially the United Kingdom, insist that United States involvement via the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is vital for European security.
This second argument was reinforced when the EU failed to resolve the Yugoslavian crisis that began in 1991. Between 1991 and 1992 the Yugoslav republics of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia declared independence, leaving a Yugoslavia that consisted only of the republics of Serbia and Montenegro. The Croatian and Bosnian secessions were strongly opposed by Serbia, and violent conflict resulted between ethnic Bosnian, Croat, and Serb populations. The EU attempted to find a settlement for these conflicts. However, these efforts were ineffective because EU members could not agree on how they should be involved, and they feared being dragged into military intervention. The Yugoslav crisis underlined the difficulties in achieving a common foreign policy for the EU. Effective international intervention in Yugoslavia ultimately came only with U.S. and NATO involvement, acting under the auspices of the United Nations.
The EU has been more successful in JHA, which formalized and extended earlier intergovernmental cooperation in combating crime, especially drug trafficking, and in setting immigration and asylum policies. The Amsterdam Treaty provided for some aspects of JHA to be moved to the supranational pillar of the EC. These related to asylum and visa issues, immigration policy, and external border controls.

Standing above the three pillars and in a position to coordinate activities across all of them is the European Council. The council is in strict legal terms not an EU institution. It is the meeting place of the leaders of the national governments. Its decisions are almost always unanimous but usually require intensive bargaining. The council shapes the integration process and has been responsible for almost all EU developments, including the SEA and the Maastricht and Amsterdam treaties. The European Council has provided the EU with initiatives for further development, agendas in various policy fields, and decisions that it expects the EU to accept. The council’s actions illustrate one of the major dilemmas within the EU: how to promote further unity and integration while permitting national governments to retain as much influence as possible over decisions.
Major Bodies
The EC pillar contains all the governing institutions of the EU. The major ones are the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Parliament, the European Court of Justice, and the Court of Auditors. In addition, there are many smaller bodies in the EU, such as the Economic and Social Committee, and the Committee of the Regions.
European Commission
The European Commission is the highest administrative body in the EU. Unlike the European Council, which oversees all three pillars of the EU, the commission concentrates almost solely on the EC pillar. It initiates, implements, and supervises policy. It is also responsible for the general financial management of the EU and for ensuring that member states adhere to EU decisions. The commission is meant to be the engine of integration, and it spearheaded the preparations for the single market and the moves toward establishing the euro.
Currently there are 20 commissioners, who are appointed by the member governments and are supported by a large administrative staff. The United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain each appoint two commissioners; the other countries appoint one each. The policy of each member state selecting a commissioner has become an issue with the possibility that the EU will become larger during the next decade. If each country in an enlarged EU were allowed to appoint at least one commissioner, the commission would be much larger, making it too unwieldy to be an effective executive and decision-making authority. In addition, the fact that the commission is appointed by member governments and not elected by the people has raised questions about how much power it should be allowed to exercise. The lack of democratic accountability has become a more important issue with the expansion of EU control into different policy areas and the intention to admit more countries into the EU.
Council of the European Union
The Council of the European Union (formerly called the Council of Ministers) represents national governments. It is the primary decision-making authority of the EU and is the most important and powerful EU body. Although its name is similar to that of the European Council, the Council of the European Union’s powers are essentially limited to the EC pillar, whereas the European Council oversees all three pillars of EU cooperation.
When the Council of the European Union meets, 15 government ministers, one from each member state, are present. However, the minister for each state is not the same for every meeting. Each member state sends its government minister who is most familiar with the topic at hand. For example, a council of 15 defense ministers might discuss foreign policy, whereas a council of 15 agriculture ministers would meet to discuss crop prices.
The Council of the European Union adopts proposals and issues instructions to the European Commission. Paradoxically, the council is expected to further EU integration while at the same time protecting the interests of the member states—two goals that are not always compatible. This contradiction will probably become more difficult to reconcile as the EU continues to expand.
Decision making in the council is complex. A few minor questions can be decided by a simple majority. Many issues, however, require what is called qualified majority voting, or QMV. In QMV each country has an indivisible bloc of votes roughly proportional to its population. It takes two-thirds of the total number of votes to make a qualified majority. QMV was introduced in some areas to replace the need for a unanimous vote. This has made the decision-making process faster and easier as it prevents any one state from exercising a veto. QMV was extended to more areas by the Single European Act. Many important decisions, however, still require unanimous support.
European Parliament (EP)
The European Parliament (EP) is made up of 626 members who are directly elected by the citizens of the EU. Direct elections to the EP were implemented in 1979. Before that time, members were appointed by the legislatures of the member governments. The European Parliament was originally designed merely as an advisory body; however, its right to participate in EU decision making was extended by the later treaties. It must be consulted about matters relating to the EU budget, which it can reject; it can remove the European Commission as a body through a vote of no confidence; and it can veto the accession of member states.
The European Parliament’s influence is essentially negative: It can block but rarely initiate legislation, its consultative opinions can be ignored, and it has no power over the Council of the European Union. Its effectiveness is limited by two structural problems: It conducts its business in 11 official languages, with consequent huge translation costs, and it is nomadic, using three sites in different countries for its meetings. Unless changes are made, these weaknesses will most likely intensify as the union grows larger. At the same time, there have been frequent calls for expanding the power of the European Parliament, which would increase the democratic accountability of the EU. The weaknesses of the European Parliament can be remedied, however, only by the national governments.

European Court of Justice (ECJ)
The European Court of Justice (ECJ) is the judicial arm of the EU. Each member country appoints one judge to the court. The ECJ is responsible for the law that the EU establishes for itself and its member states. It also ensures that other EU institutions and the member states conform with the provisions of EU treaties and legislation. The court has no direct links with national courts and no control over how they apply and interpret national law, but it has established that EU law supersedes national law.
Historically, the ECJ has declared both for and against EU institutions and member states. Its assertion that EU law takes precedence over national law, and the fact that there is no appeal against it, have given the ECJ a powerful role in the EU and have on occasion drawn criticism from both national governments and national courts.
Historically the ECJ had a very high caseload, but this was eased in 1989 when the Court of First Instance was created. This court hears certain categories of cases, including those brought by EU officials and cases seeking damages. Rulings by the Court of First Instance may be appealed to the ECJ, but only on points of law.
Court of Auditors
The Court of Auditors is made up of 15 members, one from each EU member state. The court oversees the finances of the EU and ensures that all financial transactions are carried out according to the EU budget and laws. The court issues a yearly report to the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament detailing its findings.
European Central Bank (ECB)
The European Central Bank (ECB) began operations in 1998. It is overseen by a six-member executive board that is chosen by agreement of the EU member governments and includes the ECB president and vice president. The ECB has exclusive authority for EU monetary policy, including such things as setting interest rates and regulating the money supply. In addition, the ECB played and continues to play a major role in overseeing the inauguration and consolidation of the euro as the single EU currency. Its authority over monetary policy and its independence from other EU institutions make the ECB a very powerful body. There are misgivings that the ECB has been given too much independence, leading to a debate over whether it should be subject to political direction.
Other Bodies
Other important bodies in the EU include the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. The Economic and Social Committee is a 222-member advisory body drawn from national interest groups of employers, trade unions, and other occupational groups. It must be consulted by the European Commission and the Council of the European Union on issues dealing with economic and social welfare. The Committee of the Regions, also with 222 members, was formed in 1994 as a forum for representatives of regional and local governments. It was intended to strengthen the democratic credentials of the EU, but it has only a consultative and advisory role.
Important features and policies of the EU
One of the major goals of the EU has been to establish a single market in which the economies of all the EU members are unified. The EU has sought to meet this objective in three ways: by defining a common commercial policy, by reducing economic differences among its richer and poorer members, and by stabilizing the currencies of its members.
The 1957 Rome treaties obliged the EU to adopt a common commercial policy. The EU adopted several common policies, the main ones being the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). By 1968 the EU had also created a customs union in which all tariffs and duties among members were eliminated. Finally, members had defined uniform commercial practices for trade with nonmember states.
The EU has attempted to address regional economic differences through agencies such as the European Social Fund, the European Regional Development Fund, the Cohesion Fund, and the European Investment Bank (EIB). These agencies provide money through loans or grants to further economic development in the poorer areas of the EU.
Finally, the EU attempted to stabilize the currencies of its members with the European Monetary System (EMS). The EMS was prompted not only by the desire for a single market, but also by international economic problems and fluctuations in exchange rates. These problems also convinced the EU of the importance of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), in which both the economies and the currencies of the members would be unified.
Common Policies
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was established by the 1957 Rome treaty that created the European Economic Community. The policy reflected the contemporary belief in the economic importance of agriculture. Memories of the economic hardships that followed the two world wars led the EEC founders to believe that member states should be able to feed their populations from their own resources.
The CAP was intended to stabilize agricultural markets, improve productivity, and ensure a fair deal for both farmers and consumers. It has three major elements: a single market for agricultural products with a system of common prices to producers across the EU; preference for EU producers through a common levy on all agricultural imports from abroad; and shared financial responsibility for guaranteeing prices.
From the beginning, the common prices set were based on political pressure from farmers and governments rather than market considerations. This created massive overproduction. Prices remained artificially high, and any surpluses were bought by the EU and either stored, destroyed, or sold at very low prices on international markets. The costs became a huge burden. Even so, there were few internal critics, although the CAP consumed two-thirds of the EU budget in the early 1980s. The CAP was, however, very unpopular overseas. Developing countries believed it hurt their own export agriculture, while the United States and other major food producers attacked the CAP’s protectionism, distortion of prices, and dumping of surplus produce on world markets.
Despite complaints, the EU countries with strong farming interests were initially unwilling to accept the need for reform. The CAP was almost the only major common policy possessed by the EU, and consequently it was an important symbol of integration. Nonetheless, the EU did agree to reforms to the CAP in 1984 and 1988. These agreements, which imposed production quotas on some types of agriculture and reduced the amount of agricultural spending, were driven by a combination of external pressure and the projection that CAP costs would soon outstrip EU resources. A more radical revision was finalized in 1992. This revision switched EU spending from supporting artificially high agricultural prices to directly supporting farmers’ incomes. This involved cutting guaranteed prices to farmers, and the effect was a severe reduction in both CAP costs and the level of support given to farmers.
Even so, the CAP remained the largest item in the EU budget in the late 1990s and continued to be unpopular both with many EU citizens and other world producers. The commitment to CAP as a symbol of integration may not guarantee its future, however, especially if the EU accepts members from Eastern Europe. The economies of these countries are more agriculturally based and more economically inefficient than EU states. Without major reform, almost all the CAP would have to be redirected to these states, which would be politically and economically impossible.
Common Fisheries Policy (CFP)
The other major common policy is the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) of 1982. It imposed controls on access to fish stocks and attempted to preserve the fisheries. CFP set up a structure of price and compensation systems modeled on the CAP. The CFP has successfully limited overfishing in EU waters, but national fishing industries have objected to its system of fixing prices and allocating to each country strict quotas on the amount of each fish species that can be caught.
B Reducing Economic Differences
Under the 1957 Rome treaty that created the EEC, the signatories pledged to standardize policies regarding working conditions, social insurance, and similar matters. However, little progress was made until an increase in oil prices brought about the worldwide economic depression of the 1970s. At that time, the European Regional Development Fund was created and the moribund European Social Fund, which had originally been established by the Rome treaty, was reactivated.
European Regional Development Fund and European Social Fund
The European Regional Development Fund is concerned with infrastructure developments proposed by member governments. Since 1989 it has focused on regions with weak economies, severe industrial decline, or problems of rural development. Each member country is eligible to receive a percentage of the fund’s budget, determined roughly by its population size and economic wealth. The fund normally covers only 50 percent of the proposed costs; the remainder has to come from national sources. The European Social Fund is organized in much the same way, but it focuses mainly on the training and retraining of workers. Since 1988 it has concentrated more on long-term and youth unemployment, especially in the poorer regions of the EU. All countries have benefited from the funds, but the vast bulk of grants have gone to poorer areas.
Cohesion Fund
Another instrument for reducing economic differences between the richer and poorer member states is the Cohesion Fund. The fund was established in 1994 to transfer money to the poorer EU states in order to assist them in meeting the criteria for economic and monetary union. As with the Regional Development Fund and the Social Fund, the majority of grants from the Cohesion Fund have gone to the poorer member states. The ability of these funds to survive EU expansion into Eastern Europe, without the latter receiving everything, is in doubt.
European Investment Bank (EIB)
The European Investment Bank (EIB) was established in 1957 under the Rome treaty that created the EEC. Its primary focus is on regional development, employment, and environmental modernization. The member states contribute to its capital, but it raises most of its funds on international markets. Some 8 percent of its budget goes to projects outside the EU. The bank only offers loans, not grants, and its contribution must be matched by an equivalent outlay from other sources. The EIB is an autonomous body able to make its own operational decisions free of political direction, within the general legal framework of the EU. It has been one of the most successful EU bodies. Since 1993 its annual lending volume has been greater than that of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank).
Stabilizing Currencies: The European Monetary System (EMS)
The European Monetary System (EMS) is the exchange rate structure of the EU. It was established in 1979 to stabilize exchange rates among members at a time when currencies were fluctuating strongly because of the economic recession of the 1970s. Stabler currencies, it was hoped, would provide the foundations for a future monetary union and a single currency among member states.
The core of the EMS and the engine of stabilization is the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). This system was designed to reduce the amount that the currencies of member states could fluctuate against each other. By evening out exchange rate fluctuations and stabilizing currencies, the ERM was intended to stimulate trade and investment among EU members, and to help prevent inflation by linking weaker national currencies to the strong and stable German deutsche mark.
In addition to the ERM, the EMS introduced the European Currency Unit (ECU), which was used for accounting and for administrative purposes. The ECU was replaced by the euro when EMU went into effect on January 1, 1999.
The EMS was highly successful in the 1980s. It helped develop a sense of collective responsibility and discipline that contributed greatly to a reduction of inflation and, after 1987, to a period of exchange rate stability. Its success led to the further push in the Maastricht Treaty toward full economic and monetary integration. However, once currency realignments under the ERM had been largely completed, the EMS became more rigid, and currencies were allowed to fluctuate against each other only by very small amounts. This rigidity prevented countries experiencing economic difficulties from simply adjusting their exchange rates as they might have done otherwise.
This rigidity coupled with differing economic and monetary conditions in the member states made it difficult for the EMS to hold stronger and weaker currencies together when currency traders began to have doubts about the value of certain members’ currencies. Doubts resulted from German reunification in 1990 and the difficulties in ratifying the Maastricht Treaty. Waves of currency speculation in 1992 and 1993 forced several countries to devalue their currencies, and the United Kingdom and Italy had to leave the ERM. The EMS survived by increasing the amount that currencies could fluctuate against one another, but the increase was so great that members’ currencies could fluctuate almost at will. The EMS was held together only by the EU’s political will to create monetary union and a single currency.
The role of the EMS has remained essentially unchanged with the introduction of the euro. It regulates exchange rates between the euro and those EU states that did not join the single currency.
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) is a step beyond a single market toward further integration. EMU requires an intense degree of economic coordination among its members. They must integrate their budgetary policies, establish common interest rates, and use a single currency. It is a logical step forward from the EC’s customs union of 1968 and the decision in the 1987 Single European Act to move to a single market.
EMU first appeared on the EC agenda in the late 1960s, following the community’s economic success. At that time, concerns were growing that the post-World War II fixed exchange rate system was beginning to crumble. This system tied the major world currencies to the U.S. dollar, which was tied to the price of gold. However, in the mid-1960s the dollar began to weaken, and people began to lose confidence in the system. What the EC wanted was a fixed exchange rate system that was less susceptible to the influence of the dollar. In 1969 EU leaders asked Pierre Werner, the premier of Luxembourg, to head a committee to devise a new system for the EC. In 1970 they accepted Werner’s recommendation for a movement to full EMU by 1980.
Poor economic conditions in the 1970s, however, forced postponement of the Werner Plan. In 1971 the United States uncoupled the U.S. dollar from gold, and subsequently, currencies that had been tied to the dollar became floating currencies with no fixed exchange rates. Then in 1973 oil prices quadrupled, producing a tumultuous economic climate in which governments were faced with both rising inflation and rising unemployment. EMU was more or less forgotten as the EU instead concentrated on trying to achieve a more modest structure of currency stability. After some initial difficulties, the result was the successful European Monetary System of 1979.
The seemingly positive effects of the EMS and the 1987 decision to form a single market led to a resurrection of the Werner Plan, with EMU to be implemented in three stages after 1990. In Madrid in June 1989 the European Council set up an intergovernmental conference (IGC) to flesh out the proposal. The IGC report was incorporated into the Maastricht Treaty in 1991. It was accepted that the first stage of EMU, the elimination of exchange controls and restrictions on the flow of capital, had already begun. The second stage was set for 1994, when member states would begin to coordinate their economies to reduce inflation and budget deficits. Full EMU, with the inauguration of a single currency under the direction of an EU central bank, would begin in 1999 at the latest. After pressure from Germany, which wanted the single currency to be as strong as the deutsche mark, the EU decided that countries entering the third stage would have to meet strict economic criteria on the size of government deficit, interest rate levels, inflation, and currency stability.
However, the currency speculation problems in 1992 and 1993 that caused Italy and the United Kingdom to leave the ERM, along with a general slide into economic recession, raised doubts about how many countries would meet the EMU criteria. Many governments struggled to control inflation and budget deficits through cuts in government spending and other austerity measures, but their efforts often led to higher unemployment and popular discontent. By 1998 many people within the EU believed that the qualification criteria would have to be relaxed for EMU to occur. Despite these worries, only Greece failed to meet the criteria, and on January 1, 1999, the single currency, the euro, went into use. Greece was permitted to adopt the euro two years later, on January 1, 2001, after the Greek government succeeded in lowering inflation and budget deficits.
The economic success of EMU depends on whether the euro is accepted in the international markets as a stable and strong currency and the extent to which it leads to a greater convergence of national economies and greater mobility of production, goods, and services within the EU. It is not clear whether EMU has a sufficiently firm foundation for these goals to be achieved. However, many EMU supporters find the debates about the economic costs and benefits less important than the belief that EMU, even if economically flawed, is a big step toward political integration.
EMU therefore supports the ideas of Robert Schuman and Jean Monnet that the way to political union is through economics. It has also reinforced the central role of France and Germany in the EU. The reunified Germany was much larger, reawakening French concerns and their desire to influence German economic policy. At the same time, Germany wanted to allay fears of a militaristic German nationalism. Much the same as in 1950, when the European Coal and Steel Community was created, both governments believed that these political problems could be resolved through economic integration. These concerns underpinned a more widespread belief that economic and political benefits will quickly outweigh the initial costs of switching to a single currency whose stability has still to be proven.
Relations with the rest of the world
One of the major objectives of the European Union is to speak with one voice and to have a single policy position on world issues. This has been easier to achieve in economics and trade than on political problems. Bilateral and multilateral trade agreements have been signed between the EU and most developing countries. Common political positions, however, have been hindered by conflicts between national interests. EU ambassadors in foreign capitals and at the United Nations collaborate closely, and EU member states develop common foreign policy statements.
However, this collaboration has not always resulted in common action. EU countries were divided over the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the post-1991 crises in the former Yugoslavia, and future relations with Russia and Eastern Europe. In each instance, differences arose between members over how and to what extent the EU should become involved in foreign policy problems, and what the results of any EU action would be for members’ economies and political relationships.
A EU Expansion
By 1995 all the former Communist countries of Eastern Europe had applied for EU membership. The EU, however, was concerned about the stability of democratic institutions in these countries and their transition to market economies. The countries of Eastern Europe had less developed economies than those of Western Europe, which would make the incorporation of the former into the EU difficult. Expansion would require a significant reevaluation of EU programs—especially the CAP—and distribution of EU resources. The richer member states worried that they would have to pay more into EU funds, while the poorer member states feared that their share of EU funding for agriculture and regional development would be drastically reduced.
Despite these worries, in 1997 the EU agreed that the political and economic situations in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, and Slovenia were such that negotiations on membership could begin, with EU membership coming sometime after 2000. The other Eastern European applications were put on indefinite hold. However, trade between East and West picked up substantially after 1990, as Western nations began to invest in Eastern Europe and the EU provided aid to these countries. The EU and individual countries formed joint ventures and signed formal agreements calling for political and cultural cooperation. The EU also agreed in 1998 to begin membership negotiations with Cyprus; at the same time it suspended the application from Turkey due to concerns over the country’s human rights record and strong opposition from Greece.
The EU and Non-European Nations
Relations between the EU and the non-European industrialized countries, especially the United States and Japan, have been both rewarding and frustrating. The EU follows a protectionist policy, especially with respect to agriculture, which on occasion has led the United States in particular to adopt retaliatory measures. In general, however, relations have been positive. The United States and Japan are the largest markets outside Europe for EU products and are also the largest non-European suppliers.
The EU has been less protectionist when dealing with developing countries, which receive more than one-third of its exports. By the mid-1990s all underdeveloped countries could export industrial products to EU nations duty free; many agricultural products that competed directly with those of the EU could also enter duty free. In addition, the EU has reached special agreements with many countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific (the so-called ACP countries). In 1963 it signed a convention in Yaoundé, Cameroon, offering commercial, technical, and financial cooperation to 18 African countries, mostly former French and Belgian colonies. In 1975 it signed a convention in Lomé, Togo, with 46 ACP countries, granting them free access to the EU for virtually all of their products, as well as providing industrial and financial aid. The Lomé convention was renewed and extended to a total of 58 countries in 1979; to 65 in 1984; and to 69 in 1989. The EU has also concluded similar agreements with all the Mediterranean states except Libya, as well as other countries in Latin America and Asia.
The future of the EU
The EU has come a long way since 1951. Its membership has grown to 15 countries, and may increase to 21 or more by 2010. It has developed a common body of law, common policies and practices, and a great deal of cooperation among its members. Its progress, however, has not been consistent, with spurts of activity separated by more-dormant periods. After initial activity in the 1960s, it was not until the mid-1980s that the EU moved decisively to greater integration. In the 1990s a more gloomy economic climate and evidence of popular disenchantment about the EU led to a slowdown in innovation. The 1997 Amsterdam Treaty emphasized consolidation rather than addressing outstanding issues.
This uneven progress is in part due to two unresolved debates that potential enlargement into Eastern Europe has brought closer together. The first is whether to give priority to “deepening” or “widening,” that is, whether to concentrate upon integrating the existing members further, or to welcome new members so that all can have an input into the kind of Europe they want. In addition to the six countries with whom the EU has agreed to negotiate, a further seven have also applied for membership. The second issue is supranationalism versus intergovernmentalism. Despite acceptance of the supranational principle, national governments have been reluctant to cede all control over policy areas to EU institutions. The result was the three EU pillars, since countries did not wish to give up control in politically sensitive areas such as foreign policy and judicial affairs.
The most immediate challenge the EU faces is to make a success of the euro, but the future of the single currency rests in part upon how acceptable it proves to world financial institutions and markets. In the long term, enlarging the EU by including Eastern Europe should improve economic prospects by extending the single market and stimulating economic growth and trade. The EU hopes that enlargement will raise the EU’s standing as the major European voice in world affairs and contribute to security and stability on the Continent.
The EU has, however, been reluctant to address the dramatic effects enlargement could have upon EU structures and finances. Under existing criteria, the bulk of CAP and structural fund resources—by far the largest elements of EU spending—will have to be transferred to the new members. This has alarmed the poorer member states that now receive these funds, while the richer ones are reluctant to provide more funding for the EU.
The budget issue and enlargement also present problems for the structure of the EU. They raise questions about the nature of the European Commission, how nations should be represented on the commission, and the extent of the commission’s authority and responsibility. As the power of the EU has grown, the organization has often been criticized for not being truly democratic, since the European Parliament has no real powers or control over decisions. Furthermore, the decision-making bodies, especially the commission, are not subject to any democratic check.
By the late 1990s the members seemed more reluctant to address institutional reform, fearing perhaps the loss of their ability to act independently. This reluctance has been most pronounced in security policy. The EU failed to present a coherent front in either the Persian Gulf War or the former Yugoslavia when required to move from a common policy position to a common action. The desire of some countries to build a common defense policy is resisted by others that insist that at best a European defense force can only be supportive of and subordinated to NATO.
All this raises further questions about what the EU is and what it wants to achieve. For almost all its life span, European integration has been the result of elite initiatives and agreements that did not involve national electorates. In the 1990s, however, the picture changed because of the single market, demands for more harmonization, and the Maastricht Treaty. Popular discontent with elite decisions increased, indicating that electorates could no longer be taken for granted. Almost all EU activity has been devoted to building the equivalent of a state. Little effort has been focused on how to create a European nation with a strong bond of identity across national electorates, making them feel they have much, including a future, in common. The issue of a European identity will be a major challenge in the next century.
Despite these challenges, the EU is unlikely to disappear. It has become a fact of life, with the countries enmeshed together in a host of cooperative practices. The EU has had great success in developing a culture of collaboration, and it occupies a place at the center of Europe. What is at issue is not its survival, but what kind of EU will lead Europe in the 21st century.
Member states and enlargement
The European Union has 25 member states, an area of 3,892,685 km² and approximately 460 million EU citizens as of December 2004. If it were a country, it would be the seventh largest in the world by area and the third largest by population after China and India.The European Union has land borders with 20 nations and sea borders with 31.
Institutions and legal framework
EU institutions
The functioning of the European Union is supported by several institutions:
• The European Parliament (732 members 750 max.)
• The Council of the European Union (or 'Council of Ministers') (25 members)
• The European Commission (25 members)
• The European Court of Justice (incorporating the Court of First Instance) (25 judges (& 25 judges of CFI))
• The European Court of Auditors (25 members)
• The European Council (26 members, 25 head of member states + the European Commission president) - whose unique role is perhaps better described as that of a "quasi-institution"
There are several financial bodies:
• European Central Bank (which alongside the national Central Banks, composes the European System of Central Banks)
• European Investment Bank (including the European Investment Fund)
There are also several advisory committees to the institutions:
• Committee of the Regions, advising on regional issues
• Economic and Social Committee, advising on economic and social policy (principally relations between workers and employers)
• Political and Security Committee, established in the context of the Common Foreign and Security Policy, monitoring and advising on international issues of global security.
There are also a great number of bodies, usually set up by secondary legislation, which exist to implement particular policies. These are the agencies of the European Union. Examples are the European Environment Agency, the European Aviation Safety Agency and the Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market.
Lastly, the European Ombudsman investigates complaints of maladministration by EU institutions.
Chapter 5
Council of Europe
The Council of Europe is an international organisation of 46 member states in the European region.
The seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg on the Franco-German border. Originally meeting in Strasbourg's University Palace, it is now domiciled in the Palace of Europe on the outskirts of the city centre. Membership is open to all European states which accept the principle of the rule of law and guarantee fundamental human rights and freedoms to their citizens.
One of the main successes of the Council was the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950, which serves as the basis for the European Court of Human Rights.
The Council of Europe is not to be confused with the Council of the European Union or the European Council, as it is a separate organisation and not part of the European Union.
Founding
The Council of Europe was founded following a speech given by Winston Churchill at the University of Zurich on 19 September 1946 (text of speech) calling for a "United States of Europe", similar to the United States of America, in the wake of the events of World War II.
The Council was officially founded on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London agreed to by the ten original members. This treaty is now known as the Statute of the Council of Europe.
Aims
The aim of the Council of Europe is to achieve a greater unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals and principles which are their common heritage and facilitating their economic and social progress.
The Council concentrates on the following areas:
• Protection of democracy and the rule of law
• Protection of human rights, notably:
o Social rights, with the European Social Charter
o Linguistic rights, with the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
• Promotion of Europe's cultural identity and diversity;
• Addressing problems facing European society including discrimination, xenophobia, environmental degradation, AIDS, drugs and organised crime
• Encouraging democratic stability via reform.
Institutions
The institutions of the Council of Europe are:
• The Secretariat and the Secretary-General
• The Committee of Ministers
• The Parliamentary Assembly (PACE)
• The European Court of Human Rights
• The Commissioner for Human Rights
There's also the European Commission for Democracy through Law, better known as the Venice Commission.
Membership
Today, there are 46 member states, including nearly every European state. Upon foundation on May 5, 1949 there were ten members: Ireland Italy Luxembourg Belgium Denmark France Netherlands Norway Sweden United Kingdom
Members with later admission dates (sorted by date of admission) :Greece (9 August 1949) Turkey (9 August 1949) Iceland (9 March 1950) Germany Federal Republic of Germany (13 July 1950) Austria (16 April 1956) Cyprus (24 May 1961) Switzerland (6 May 1963) Malta (29 April 1965) Portugal (22 September 1976) Spain (24 November 1977) Liechtenstein (23 November 1978) San Marino (16 November 1988) Finland (5 May 1989) Hungary (6 November 1990) Poland (26 November 1991) Bulgaria (7 May 1992) Estonia (14 May 1993) Lithuania (14 May 1993) Slovenia (14 May 1993) Czechia (30 June 1993) Slovakia (30 June 1993) Romania (7 October 1993) Andorra (10 October 1994) Latvia (10 February 1995) Albania (13 July 1995) Moldova (13 July 1995) Macedonia (9 November 1995) Ukraine (9 November 1995) Russia (28 February 1996) Croatia (6 November 1996) Georgia (27 April 1999) Armenia (25 January 2001) Azerbaijan (25 January 2001) Bosnia and Herzegovina (24 April 2002) Serbia and Montenegro (3 April 2003) Monaco (5 October 2004)
The Parliament of Belarus held special guest status with the Parliamentary Assembly from September 1992 to January 1997, but this has been suspended as a consequence of the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections which the CoE found to be undemocratic, as well as limits on democratic freedoms such as freedom of expression (cf. Belarusian media) under the authoritarian regime of President Lukashenko. The constitution changed by the referendum "does not respect minimum democratic standards and violates the principles of separation of powers and the rule of law." Belarus applied for full membership on 12 March 1993 (still open).Kazakhstan applied for observer status at the Parliamentary Assembly in 1999. The official response of PACE was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at CoE until their democracy and human rights records improved.The Vatican City has observer status at the Committee of Ministers since 1970.
Some non-European states also have observer status at Council of Europe institutions:Japan has observer status at the Committee of Ministers. Israel and the United States have observer status at the Parliamentary Assembly. Canada and Mexico have observer status at both the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly.



Part 3
Assia Organizations
Chapter 6
Association of south east Asian nations
(ASEAN)

Establishment and membership
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok by the five original Member Countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam joined on 8 January 1984, Vietnam on 28 July 1995, Laos and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia on 30 April 1999.
The ASEAN region has a population of about 500 million, a total area of 4.5 million square kilometers, a combined gross domestic product of US$737 billion, and a total trade of US$ 720 billion.
Objectives
The ASEAN Declaration states that the aims and purposes of the Association are:
- to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through joint endeavours in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian nations.
- to promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter.
In 1995, the ASEAN Heads of States and Government re-affirmed that “Cooperative peace and shared prosperity shall be the fundamental goals of ASEAN.”
Southeast Asia The Association represents the collective will of the nations of to bind themselves together in friendship and cooperation and, through joint efforts and sacrifices, secure for their peoples and for posterity the blessings of peace, freedom, and prosperity. (The ASEAN Declaration, Bangkok, 8 August 1967),
Fundamental principles
The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in Southeast Asia, signed at the First ASEAN Summit on 24 February 1976, declared that in their relations with one another, the High Contracting Parties should be guided by the following fundamental principles:
- Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations;
- The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion or coercion;
- Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
- Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner;
-Renunciation of the threat or use of force;
- Effective cooperation among themselves.
POLITICAL COOPERATION
The TAC stated that ASEAN political and security dialogue and cooperation should aim to promote regional peace and stability by enhancing regional resilience. Regional resilience shall be achieved by cooperating in all fields based on the principles of self-confidence, self-reliance, mutual respect, cooperation, and solidarity, which shall constitute the foundation for a strong and viable community of nations in Southeast Asia.
Some of the major political accords of ASEAN are as follows:
- ASEAN Declaration, Bangkok, 8 August 1967;
- Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality Declaration, Kuala Lumpur, 27 November 1971;
- Declaration of ASEAN Concord, Bali, 24 February 1976;
- Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, Bali, 24 February 1976;
- ASEAN Declaration on the South China Sea, Manila, 22 July 1992;
- Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone, Bangkok, 15 December 1997;
- ASEAN Vision 2020, Kuala Lumpur, 15 December 1997.
- Declaration of ASEAN Concord II, Bali, 7 October 2003
The ASEAN Security Community is envisaged to bring ASEAN’s political and security cooperation to a higher plane to ensure that countries in the region live at peace with one another and with the world at large in a just, democratic and harmonious environment.
In 1992, the ASEAN Heads of State and Government declared that ASEAN should intensify its external dialogues in political and security matters as a means of building cooperative ties with states in the Asia-Pacific region. Two years later, the ASEAN Regional Forum or ARF was established. The ARF aims to promote confidence-building, preventive diplomacy and conflict resolution in the region. The present participants in the ARF include: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Canada, China, European Union, India, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Mongolia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, the Russian Federation, Singapore, Thailand, the United States, Vietnam.
Through political dialogue and confidence building, no tension has escalated into armed confrontation among ASEAN members since its establishment more than three decades ago.
Economic and functional cooperation
When ASEAN was established, trade among the Member Countries was insignificant. Estimates between 1967 and the early 1970s showed that the share of intra-ASEAN trade from the total trade of the Member Countries was between 12 and 15 percent. Thus, some of the earliest economic cooperation schemes of ASEAN were aimed at addressing this situation. One of these was the Preferential Trading Arrangement of 1977, which accorded tariff preferences for trade among ASEAN economies. Ten years later, an Enhanced PTA Programme was adopted at the Third ASEAN Summit in Manila further increasing intra-ASEAN trade.
The Framework Agreement on Enhancing Economic Cooperation was adopted at the Fourth ASEAN Summit in Singapore in 1992, which included the launching of a scheme toward an ASEAN Free Trade Area or AFTA. The strategic objective of AFTA is to increase the ASEAN region’s competitive advantage as a single production unit. The elimination of tariff and non-tariff barriers among the member countries is expected to promote greater economic efficiency, productivity, and competitiveness. The Fifth ASEAN Summit held in Bangkok in 1995 adopted the Agenda for Greater Economic Integration, which included the acceleration of the timetable for the realization of AFTA from the original 15-year timeframe to 10 years.
In 1997, the ASEAN leaders adopted the ASEAN Vision 2020, which called for ASEAN Partnership in Dynamic Development aimed at forging closer economic integration within the region. The vision statement also resolved to create a stable, prosperous and highly competitive ASEAN Economic Region, in which there is a free flow of goods, services, investments, capital, and equitable economic development and reduced poverty and socio-economic disparities. The Hanoi Plan of Action, adopted in 1998, serves as the first in a series of plans of action leading up to the realization of the ASEAN vision.
In addition to trade and investment liberalization, regional economic integration is being pursued through the development of Trans-ASEAN transportation network consisting of major inter-state highway and railway networks, principal ports and sea lanes for maritime traffic, inland waterway transport, and major civil aviation links. ASEAN is promoting the interoperability and interconnectivity of the national telecommunications equipment and services. Building of Trans-ASEAN energy networks, which consist of the ASEAN Power Grid and the Trans-ASEAN Gas Pipeline Projects are also being developed.
ASEAN cooperation has resulted in greater regional integration. Within three years from the launching of AFTA, exports among
ASEAN countries grew from US$43.26 billion in 1993 to almost US$80 billion in 1996, an average yearly growth rate of 28.3 percent. In the process, the share of intra-regional trade from ASEAN’s total trade rose from 20 percent to almost 25 percent. Tourists from ASEAN countries themselves have been representing an increasingly important share of tourism in the region. In 1996, of the 28.6 million tourist arrivals in ASEAN, 11.2 million or almost 40 percent, came from within ASEAN itself.
Today, ASEAN economic cooperation covers the following areas: trade, investment, industry, services, finance, agriculture, forestry, energy, transportation and communication, intellectual property, small and medium enterprises, and tourism.
Desiring to build a community of caring societies, the ASEAN leaders resolved in 1995 to elevate functional cooperation to a higher plane to bring shared prosperity to all its members. The Framework for Elevating Functional Cooperation to a Higher Plane was adopted in 1996 with a theme: “Shared prosperity through human development, technological competitiveness, and social cohesiveness.” Functional cooperation is guided by the following plans:
- ASEAN Plan of Action on Social Development;
- ASEAN Plan of Action on Culture and Information;
- ASEAN Plan of Action on Science and Technology;
- ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on the Environment;
- ASEAN Plan of Action on Drug Abuse Control; and
- ASEAN Plan of Action in Combating Transnational Crime

External relations
The ASEAN Vision 2020 affirmed an outward-looking ASEAN playing a pivotal role in the international community and advancing ASEAN’s common interests.
ASEAN has made major strides in building cooperative ties with states in the Asia-Pacific region and shall continue to accord them a high priority. Cooperation with other East Asian countries has accelerated with the holding of an annual dialogue among the leaders of ASEAN, China, Japan, and the Republic of Korea. In 1997, a joint statement between ASEAN and each of them was signed providing for framework for cooperation towards the 21st century. In November 1999, the leaders of ASEAN, China, Japan and the Republic of Korea issued a Joint Statement on East Asia Cooperation outlining the areas of cooperation among them.
The ASEAN Summit of 1992 mandated that “ASEAN, as part of an increasingly interdependent world, should intensify cooperative relationships with its Dialogue Partners.” Consultations between ASEAN and its Dialogue Partners are held at the Foreign Ministers’ level on an annual basis. ASEAN’s Dialogue Partners include Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, India, Japan, the Republic of Korea, New Zealand, the Russian Federation, the United States of America, and the United Nations Development Programme. ASEAN also promotes cooperation with Pakistan on certain sectors.
Consistent with its resolve to enhance cooperation with other developing regions, ASEAN maintains contact with other inter-governmental organizations, namely, the Economic Cooperation Organization, the Gulf Cooperation Council, the Rio Group, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, and the South Pacific Forum.
Most ASEAN Member Countries also participate actively in the activities of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM), the East Asia-Latin America Forum (EALAF).
Structures and mechanisms
The highest decision-making organ of ASEAN is the Meeting of the ASEAN Heads of State and Government. The ASEAN Summit is convened every year. The ASEAN Ministerial Meeting (Foreign Ministers) is held on an annual basis. Ministerial meetings on several other sectors are also held: agriculture and forestry, economics, energy, environment, finance, information, investment, labour, law, regional haze, rural development and poverty alleviation, science and technology, social welfare, transnational crime, transportation, tourism, youth, the AIA Council and, the AFTA Council. Supporting these ministerial bodies are 29 committees of senior officials and 122 technical working groups.
To support the conduct of ASEAN’s external relations, ASEAN has established committees composed of heads of diplomatic missions in the following capitals: Brussels, London, Paris, Washington D.C., Tokyo, Canberra, Ottawa, Wellington, Geneva, Seoul, New Delhi, New York, Beijing, Moscow, and Islamabad.
The Secretary-General of ASEAN is appointed on merit and accorded ministerial status. The Secretary-General of ASEAN, who has a five-year term, is mandated to initiate, advise, coordinate, and implement ASEAN activities. The members of the professional staff of the ASEAN Secretariat are appointed on the principle of open recruitment and region-wide competition.
ASEAN has several specialized bodies and arrangements promoting inter-governmental cooperation in various fields: ASEAN University Network, ASEAN-EC Management Centre, ASEAN Centre for Energy, ASEAN Agricultural Development Planning Centre, ASEAN Earthquake Information Centre, ASEAN Poultry Research and Training Centre, ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, ASEAN Rural Youth Development Centre, ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Center, ASEAN Tourism Information Centre, and ASEAN Timber Technology Centre.
In addition, ASEAN promotes cooperative activities with organizations with related aims and purposes: ASEAN-Chambers of Commerce and Industry, ASEAN Business Forum, ASEAN Tourism Association, ASEAN Council on Petroleum, ASEAN Ports Association, ASEAN Vegetable Oils Club, and the ASEAN-Institutes for Strategic and International Studies. Furthermore, there are 53 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), which have formal affiliations with ASEAN.

ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation

Background
The ASEAN Plus Three cooperation began in December 1997 with the convening of an informal Summit among the Leaders of ASEAN and their counterparts from East Asia, namely China, Japan and the Republic of Korea (ROK) at the sidelines of the Second ASEAN Informal Summit in Malaysia.
The ASEAN Plus Three process was institutionalised in 1999 when the Leaders issued a Joint Statement on East Asia Cooperation at their 3rd ASEAN Plus Three Summit in Manila. The ASEAN Plus Three Leaders expressed greater resolve and confidence in further strengthening and deepening East Asia cooperation at various levels and in various areas, particularly in economic and social, political, and other fields.
Since then, a number of key documents have been adopted to set the direction for ASEAN Plus Three cooperation. These include the Report of the East Asia Vision Group (EAVG) of 2001 and the Report of the East Asia Study Group (EASG) of 2002.

Political and Security Cooperation
Political and security cooperation among the ASEAN and Plus Three countries are progressing well. ASEAN and Plus Three Countries hold regular dialogue and consultations at the summit, ministerial, senior officials and working groups/expert levels to strengthen and deepen cooperation.
ASEAN Plus Three countries have cooperated in addressing the threat posed by terrorism and other transnational crimes. The first ASEAN SOM Plus Three Consultation on Transnational Crime (SOMTC+3) was held in June 2003 in Ha Noi. The first ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime Plus Three was held on 10 January 2004 in Bangkok, where the ministers adopted the concept plan to address transnational crimes in eight areas, namely terrorism, illicit drug trafficking, trafficking in persons, sea piracy, arms smuggling, money laundering, international economic crime, and cyber crime.
The SOMTC +3 held on 29 September 2004 in Bandar Seri Begawan further agreed to develop specific work programmes in the eight areas of the concept plan for joint cooperation. Each of the areas will be led by an “engine country” from ASEAN and supported by the Plus Three Countries.

III - Economic, Trade and Financial Cooperation
Cooperation in economic, and monetary and financial fields has made substantive progress. Over the years, total trade value between ASEAN and the Plus Three Countries reached US$ 195.6 billion in 2003 compared to US$170.8 billion in 2002, marking a growth of 14.49% in 2003.
Bilateral trading arrangements between ASEAN and China and ASEAN and Japan have been established and between ASEAN and the ROK are underway. These arrangements will serve as the building blocks for a possible establishment of an East Asia Free Trade Area (EAFTA) in the near future.
In financial cooperation, a regional financing arrangement called the “Chiang Mai Initiative (CMI)” has been put in place. The CMI consist of an expanded ASEAN Swap Arrangement (ASA) and a network of bilateral swap arrangements (BSAs) among ASEAN Member Countries, China, Japan and the ROK. The ASA is now US$1 billion in size, while 16 BSAs have been successfully concluded with a combined total size of US$36.5 billion. The ASEAN Plus Three countries are exploring ways to enhance the effectiveness of the CMI.
Under monetary and finance cooperation, substantive progress has been made in developing the Asian Bond Market Initiative (ABMI). ASEAN Plus Three countries are undertaking efforts to modify existing regulations to facilitate the issuance of and investment in local currency denominated bonds under the ABMI. The AsianBondsOnline Website (ABW) was launched in May 2004.
Implementation of East Asia Study Group (EASG) Measures
The Final Report of the EASG was adopted by the ASEAN Leaders at the ASEAN Plus Summit in 2002 in Cambodia. The Report contains 17 short-term measures, and 9 medium and long-term measures.
EASG Short-term Measures
Since the adoption of the EASG’s Final Report in 2002, all 17 EASG short-term measures have been taken up by the ASEAN Plus Three Countries. The ASEAN Plus Three Countries have agreed to implement all the short-term measures by the 10th Anniversary of the ASEAN Plus Three cooperation in 2007.
Four Short-term measures have been implemented: 1) “implement a comprehensive human resources development program for East Asia” by establishing the ASEAN Plus Three Study Group on Facilitation and Promotion of Exchange of People and Human Resources Development by Japan; 2) “build a network of East Asia Think-tanks” (NEAT) by China and Thailand, 3) “establish an East Asia Forum” (EAF) by the ROK and Malaysia, and 4) “form and East Asia Business Council” (EABC) by Malaysia. Some measures have been implemented through ASEAN Plus Three sectoral cooperation such as “establish GSP status and preferential treatment for the least developed countries” and “strengthen mechanisms for cooperation on non-traditional security issues”.

EASG Medium and Long-term Measures
There are 9 EASG Medium and Long-term Measures. China is planning to host the high-level conference on investment and SMEs in China in the first half of 2005.
ASEAN Plus Three Countries continue to hold discussions on the convening of the East Asia Summit (EAS) at an appropriate time and the concept of an East Asia community. ASEAN and Japan have developed concept and issues papers on the EAS. Malaysia has offered to host the first East Asia Summit in Kuala Lumpur in 2005.
The ASEAN Plus Three Economic Ministers Meeting (AEM+3) held in Jakarta on 14 September 2004 have endorsed a proposal to set up an Experts Group, comprising scholars and researchers to study the feasibility of an EAFTA.
Other measures are being pursued through ASEAN Plus Three sectoral meetings: 1) “establish a regional financing facility” and “pursue a more closely coordinated regional exchange rate mechanism” through ASEAN+3 Finance Ministers Meeting; 2) “promote closer regional marine environmental cooperation for the entire region” through ASEAN+3 Ministers Meeting on the Environment; and 3) “build a framework for energy policies and strategies and action plans” through the ASEAN+3 Ministers Meeting on Energy.
Institutional Mechanisms
Currently, there are 48 mechanisms under the ASEAN Plus Three process, coordinating 16 areas of ASEAN Plus Three cooperation, which include economic, monetary and finance, political and security, tourism, agriculture, environment, energy, and ICT
The ASEAN Plus Three Unit was established at the ASEAN Secretariat in December 2003 to assist the ASEAN Plus Three Co-chairs to coordinate and monitor ASEAN Plus Three cooperation.

Members
Brunei - Cambodia- Indonesia - Laos - Malaysia - Myanmar - Philippines - Singapore- Thailand - Vietnam.







Chapter 7
South Asian Association
for Regional Cooperation
( SAARC)
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established when its Charter was formally adopted on 8 December 1985 by the Heads of State or Government of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and SriLanka.
The Association provides a platform for the peoples of South Asia to work together in a spirit of friendship, trust and understanding. It aims to promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and to improve their quality of life through accelerated economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region.
Cooperation in the SAARC is based on respect for the principles of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political independence, noninterference in internal affairs of the Member States and mutual benefit.
Regional cooperation is seen as a complement to the bilateral and multilateral relations of SAARC Member States.
Decisions are taken on the basis of unanimity. Bilateral and contentious issues are excluded from the deliberations of SAARC.
Preparatory meetings were held prior to the First Summit in Dhaka. The Foreign Secretaries in 1981 in Colombo and the Foreign Ministers in 1983 in New Delhi identified areas to promote regional cooperation. The areas of cooperation under the reconstituted Regional Integrated Programme of Action which is pursued through the Technical Committees now cover: Agriculture and Rural Development; Health and Population Activities; Women, Youth and Children; Environment and Forestry, Science and Technology and Meteorology; Transport; and Human Resource Development.
Working Groups have also been established in the areas of: Information and Communications Technology (ICT); Biotechnology; Intellectual Property Rights (IPR); Tourism; and Energy.
Summits, which are the highest authority in SAARC, are to be held annually. The country hosting the Summit holds the Chair of the Association. Pakistan which hosted the Twelfth Summit in January 2004 is the current Chairperson of the Association.
The Thirteenth Summit is scheduled to take place in Bangladesh in January 2005.
The Council of Ministers comprising Foreign Ministers, meets at least twice a year. Its functions include formulating policy, reviewing progress of regional cooperation, identifying new areas of cooperation and establishing additional mechanisms that may be necessary.
The Standing Committee comprising Foreign Secretaries, monitors and coordinates SAARC programmes of cooperation, approves projects including their financing and mobilizes regional and external resources. It meets as often as necessary and reports to the Council of Ministers.
The Association also convenes meetings at Ministerial Level on specialised themes.
The Committee on Economic Cooperation consisting of Secretaries of Commerce oversees regional cooperation in the economic field.
The Agreement on SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA) was signed in 1993 and four rounds of trade negotiations have been concluded. With the objective of moving towards a South Asian Economic Union (SAEU), the Agreement on South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) was signed during the Twelfth Summit in Islamabad in January 2004. SAFTA will enter into force from January 2006.
The Association has carried out Regional Studies on trade, manufactures and services, environment and poverty alleviation, SAFTA and Customs matters.
During the Twelfth Summit in Islamabad, the SAARC Social Charter was signed in order to address social issues such as population stabilization, empowerment of women, youth mobilization, human resource development, promotion of health and nutrition, and protection of children, which are keys to the welfare and well-being of all South Asians.
The Governors of the Central Banks of Member States under the auspices of SAARCFINANCE meet regularly to consider cooperation in financial matters.
For strengthening cooperation in information and media related activities of the Association, the Heads of National Television and Radio Organisations of Member Countries meet annually. Similarly, the SAARC Audio-Visual Exchange (SAVE) Committee disseminates information both on SAARC and its Member States through regular Radio and TV Programmes.
In the field of education, the Member States cooperate through the forums of SACODiL (SAARC Consortium on Open and Distance Learning), and Heads of Universities Grants Commission/Equivalent Bodies.
The South Asian States have adopted Conventions on the Suppression of Terrorism (including Additional Protocol signed in January 2004 in Islamabad), Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, Trafficking in Women and Children, and Child Welfare in South Asia. An Agreement on Food Security Reserve is also in place.
The Twelfth Summit renewed the urgency to deal with poverty in the region. For this purpose, the Summit directed the Independent South Asian Commission on Poverty Alleviation (ISACPA) to submit to the next Summit a comprehensive and realistic blue-print setting out SAARC Development Goals for the next five years in the areas of poverty alleviation, education, health and environment.
Memoranda of Understanding have been signed to promote collaboration with UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development), UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), UNESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific), UNDCP (United Nations Drug Control Programme), ITU (International Telecommunications Union), APT (Asia Pacific Telecommunity), WHO (World Health Organization), UNIFEM (Untied Nations Fund for Women), CIDA (Canadian International Development Agency), EC (European Commission), PTB (German Metrology Institute), WB (World Bank), ADB (Asian Development Bank), UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS) and SACEP (South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme).
Regular dialogues with other Regional Organisations such as ASEAN (Association of South-East Asian Nations), ECO (Economic Cooperation Organisation) and PIFS (Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat) are held with a view to promoting cooperation among sub-regional organisations.
The Association promotes interaction on multilateral issues of common concern to its members and has identified areas in which collective positions could be projected at international forums. These include trade, finance, environment, agriculture, women and children, and information and telecommunications.
Beyond official linkages, SAARC also encourages and facilitates cooperation in private sector through the SAARC Chamber of Commerce and Industry (SCCI), which is a SAARC Apex Body. Other such bodies are SAARCLAW and the South Asian Federation of Accountants (SAFA). In addition, status as SAARC Recognised Body has been accorded to professional groups in South Asia including Architects, Management Development Institutions, University Women, Town Planners, Cardiologists, Dermatologists, Teachers, Writers, Insurance Organizations, Diploma Engineers, Radiological and Surgical Care Societies.
The Association of Speakers and Parliamentarians enjoy special recognition by the Heads of State or Government.
Regional Centres covering Agriculture, Tuberculosis, Documentation, Meteorological Research, and Human Resource Development have been established in different SAARC capitals.
In addition, three new regional centres covering Culture, Coastal Zone Management, and Information are being established.
The SAARC Secretariat is based in Kathmandu. It coordinates and monitors implementation of activities, prepares for and services meetings, and serves as a channel of communication between the Association and its Member States as well as other regional organisations.
The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General, who is appointed by the Council of Ministers from Member Countries in alphabetical order for a three-year term. Mr. Q.A.M.A. Rahim from Bangladesh is the current Secretary General. The previous Secretaries General were from Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The next Secretary General is to be from Bhutan.
The Secretary General is assisted by seven Directors on deputation from Member States.
The SAARC Secretariat and Member States observe 8 December as the SAARC Charter Day.
Areas of cooperation
At the inception of the Association, the Integrated Programme of Action (IPA) consisting of a number of Technical Committees (TCs) was identified as the core areas of cooperation. Over the period of years, the number of TCs were changed as per the requirement. The current areas of cooperation under the reconstituted Regional Integrated Programme of Action which is pursued through the Technical Committees cover:
- Agriculture and Rural Development;
- Health and Population Activities;
- Women, Youth and Children;
- Environment and Forestry;
5. Science and Technology and Meteorology;
Human Resources Development; and Transport.
Recently, high level Working Groups have also been established to strengthen cooperation in the areas of Information and Communications Technology, Biotechnology, Intellectual Property Rights, Tourism, and Energy.
Given the emphasis laid down at successive Summits on the need to expand the areas of cooperation and strengthen the regional cooperation, a number of other areas have been included in the SAARC agenda. Several Ministerial level meetings have taken place to give due emphasis in various fields.

Member states : India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,Afghanistan, Nepal, Maldives, Bhutan,
Observer nations: Japan, China.











Part 4
Africa organizations
Chapter 8
The African Union

The advent of the African Union (AU) can be described as an event of great magnitude in the institutional evolution of the continent. On 9.9.1999, the Heads of State and Government of the Organisation of African Unity issued a Declaration (the Sirte Declaration) calling for the establishment of an African Union, with a view, inter alia, to accelerating the process of integration in the continent to enable it play its rightful role in the global economy while addressing multifaceted social, economic and political problems compounded as they are by certain negative aspects of globalisation.
The main objectives of the OAU were, inter alia, to rid the continent of the remaining vestiges of colonization and apartheid; to promote unity and solidarity among African States; to coordinate and intensify cooperation for development; to safeguard the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Member States and to promote international cooperation within the framework of the United Nations.
Indeed, as a continental organization the OAU provided an effective forum that enabled all Member States to adopt coordinated positions on matters of common concern to the continent in international fora and defend the interests of Africa effectively.
Through the OAU Coordinating Committee for the Liberation of Africa, the Continent worked and spoke as one with undivided determination in forging an international consensus in support of the liberation struggle and the fight against apartheid.
Quest for Unity
African countries, in their quest for unity, economic and social development under the banner of the OAU, have taken various initiatives and made substantial progress in many areas which paved the way for the establishment of the AU. Noteworthy among these are:

- Lagos Plan of Action (LPA) and the Final Act of Lagos (1980); incorporating programmes and strategies for self reliant development and cooperation among African countries.
- The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights (Nairobi 1981) and the Grand Bay Declaration and Plan of Action on Human rights: two instruments adopted by the OAU to promote Human and People’s Rights in the Continent. The Human Rights Charter led to the establishment of the African Human Rights Commission located in Banjul, The Gambia.
- Africa’s Priority Programme for Economic recovery (APPER) – 1985: an emergency programme designed to address the development crisis of the 1980s, in the wake of protracted drought and famine that had engulfed the continent and the crippling effect of Africa’s external indebtedness.
- OAU Declaration on the Political and Socio-Economic Situation in Africa and the Fundamental Changes taking place in the World (1990): which underscored Africa’s resolve to seize the imitative, to determine its destiny and to address the challenges to peace, democracy and security.
- The Charter on Popular Participation adopted in 1990: a testimony to the renewed determination of the OAU to endeavour to place the African citizen at the center of development and decision-making.
- The Treaty establishing the African Economic Community (AEC) - 1991: commonly known as the Abuja Treaty, it seeks to create the AEC through six stages culminating in an African Common Market using the Regional Economic Communities (RECs) as building blocks. The Treaty has been in operation since 1994.
- The Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution (1993): a practical expression of the determination of the African leadership to find solutions to conflicts, promote peace, security and stability in Africa.
- Cairo Agenda for Action (1995): a programme for relaunching Africa’s political, economic and social development.
- African Common Position on Africa’s External Debt Crisis (1997): a strategy for addressing the Continent’s External Debt Crisis.
- The Algiers decision on Unconstitutional Changes of Government (1999) and the Lome Declaration on the framework for an OAU Response to Unconstitutional Changes (2000).
- The 2000 Solemn Declaration on the Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation: establishes the fundamental principles for the promotion of Democracy and Good Governance in the Continent.
- Responses to other challenges: Africa has initiated collective action through the OAU in the protection of environment, in fighting international terrorism, in combating the scourge of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, malaria and tuberculosis or dealing with humanitarian issues such as refugees and displaced persons, landmines, small and light weapons among others.
- The Constitutive Act of the African Union: adopted in 2000 at the Lome Summit (Togo), entered into force in 2001.
- The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) : adopted as a Programme of the AU at the Lusaka Summit (2001).
Advent of the AU
The OAU initiatives paved the way for the birth of AU. In July 1999, the Assembly decided to convene an extraordinary session to expedite the process of economic and political integration in the continent. Since then, four Summits have been held leading to the official launching of the African Union:
- The Sirte Extraordinary Session (1999) decided to establish an African Union.
- The Lome Summit (2000) adopted the Constitutive Act of the Union.
- The Lusaka Summit (2001) drew the road map for the implementation of the AU.
- The Durban Summit (2002) launched the AU and convened the 1st Assembly of the Heads of States of the African Union.
The Vision of the AU
- The AU is Africa’s premier institution and principal organization for the promotion of accelerated socio-economic integration of the continent, which will lead to greater unity and solidarity between African countries and peoples.
- The AU is based on the common vision of a united and strong Africa and on the need to build a partnership between governments and all segments of civil society, in particular women, youth and the private sector, in order to strengthen solidarity and cohesion amongst the peoples of Africa.
- As a continental organization it focuses on the promotion of peace, security and stability on the continent as a prerequisite for the implementation of the development and integration agenda of the Union.

The Objectives of the AU
- To achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and the peoples of Africa;
- To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of its Member States;
- To accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent;
-To promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its peoples;
- To encourage international cooperation, taking due account of the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights;
- To promote peace, security, and stability on the continent;
- To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and good governance;
- To promote and protect human and peoples' rights in accordance with the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and other relevant human rights instruments;
- To establish the necessary conditions which enable the continent to play its rightful role in the global economy and in international negotiations;
- To promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels as well as the integration of African economies;
- To promote co-operation in all fields of human activity to raise the living standards of African peoples;
- To coordinate and harmonize the policies between the existing and future Regional Economic Communities for the gradual attainment of the objectives of the Union;
- To advance the development of the continent by promoting research in all fields, in particular in science and technology;
- To work with relevant international partners in the eradication of preventable diseases and the promotion of good health on the continent.
Organs of the AU
The Assembly
Composed of Heads of State and Government or their duly accredited representatives. The Assembly of Heads of State and Government is the supreme organ of the Union.
The Executive Council
Composed of Ministers or Authorities designated by the Governments of Members States. The Executive Council is responsible to the Assembly.
The Commission
Composed of the Chairperson, the Deputy Chairperson, eight Commissioners and Staff members; Each Commissioner shall be responsible for a portfolio.
The Permanent Representatives' Committee
Composed of Permanent Representatives of Member States accredited to the Union. The Permanent Representatives Committee is charged with the responsibility of preparing the work of the Executive Council.
Peace and Security Council - PSC
By decision of the Summit of Lusaka, July 2001, a decision was made for the creation within the African Union of the Peace and Security Council. The Protocol establishing the PSC is in the process of ratification.
Pan-African Parliament
A Pan-African Parliament, and organ to ensure the full participation of African peoples in governance, development and economic integration of the Continent. The protocol relating to the composition, powers, functions and organization of the Pan-African Parliament has been signed by Member States and is in the process of ratification.
ECOSOCC
The Economic, Social and Cultural Council, an advisory organ composed of different social and professional groups of the Member States of the Union. The statutes determining the functions, powers, composition and organization of the Economic, Social and Cultural Council have been prepared and will be submitted to Maputo Summit.
The Court of Justice
A Court of Justice of the Union shall be established. The statutes defining the composition and functions of the Court of Justice have been prepared and will be submitted to the Assembly in Maputo.
The Specialized Technical Committees
The following Specialized Technical Committees are meant to address sectoral issues and are at Ministerial Level:
- The Committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural Matters;
- The Committee on Monetary and Financial Affairs;
- The Committee on Trade, Customs and Immigration Matters;
- The Committee on Industry, Science and Technology, Energy, - Natural Resources and Environment;
- The Committee on Transport, Communications and Tourism;
- The Committee on Health, Labour and Social Affairs; and
- The Committee on Education, Culture and Human Resources.
The Financial Institutions
- The African Central bank
- The African Monetary Fund
- The African Investment Bank
Progress in the implementation of the Constitutive Act
Since the Lusaka Summit decisions on the transition from OAU to AU, progress has been made as follows:
- The preparation and adoption of the Legal Instruments for the operationalization and the launching of the 4 principal organs: The Assembly, The Executive Council, The Commission and the Permanent Representatives Committee.
- The elaboration of the Structure of the Commission and the conditions of service of staff.
- Completion of the Studies and Legal instrument for the operationalization of ECOSOCC
- Completion of the Studies on the Financing of the AU
Preparation of the Statutes of the Court of Justice
- Transfer of assets and liabilities from the OAU to the AU
- Preparation of a Protocol on Relations between the AU and RECS
- Finalization of the Protocol on the Pan-African Parliament (under ratification)
- Finalization of the Protocol on the Peace and Security Council
- Preparation of the Policy Framework for the establishment of the African Standby Force and the Military Staff Committee
- Finalization of the process of electing Members of the Commission by the Assembly of the Union in Maputo.
The AU Commission
The Commission is the key organ playing a central role in the day-to-day management of the African Union. Among others, it represents the Union and defends its interests; elaborates draft common positions of the Union; prepares strategic plans and studies for the consideration of the Executive Council; elaborates, promotes, coordinates and harmonizes the programmes and policies of the Union with those of the RECs; ensures the mainstreaming of gender in all programmes and activities of the Union.
Members of the Commission
- Chairperson;
- Deputy Chairperson;
- Eight (8) Commissioners.
- Staff members
Portfolios of the Commission
- PEACE AND SECURITY (Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, and Combating Terrorism...)
- POLITICAL AFFAIRS (Human Rights, Democracy, Good Governance, Electoral Institutions, Civil Society Organizations, Humanitarian Affairs, Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons)
- INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENERGY (Energy, Transport, Communications, Infrastructure and Tourism…)
- SOCIAL AFFAIRS (Health, Children, Drug Control, Population, Migration, Labour and Employment, Sports and Culture…)
- HUMAN RESOURCES, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (Education, Information Technology Communication, Youth, Human Resources, Science and Technology…)
6. TRADE AND INDUSTRY (Trade, Industry, Customs and Immigration Matters…)
- RURAL ECONOMY AND AGRICULTURE (Rural Economy, Agriculture and Food Security, Livestock, Environment, Water and Natural Resources and Desertification…)
- ECONOMIC AFFAIRS (Economic Integration, Monetary Affairs, Private Sector Development, Investment and Resource Mobilization…).
Interim Arrangement
In accordance with Article 33 (4) of the Constitutive Act, the Secretary General, the Assistant Secretaries General (ASGs) and the Staff of the former General Secretariat of the OAU have been designated as the Interim staff of the Commission.
After the Durban (South Africa) Summit, an interim period began with effect from July 9, 2002 to last for a duration of one year, after which the 2nd Ordinary session of the Assembly in Maputo (Mozambique) shall elect the Chairperson, the Deputy Chairperson and appoint the Commissioners through the Executive Council
Economy
The member states' efforts to collaborate economically are impeded by the civil wars raging in several parts of Africa. The African Union provides greater powers to govern African economies. The states goals include the creation of free trade areas, customs unions, single market, a central bank and a common currency and thus establishing economic and monetary union.These goals should be achieved through the creating of the African Economic Community (AEC)
Member countries of the African Union
Algeria - Angola - Benin - Botswana - Burkina Faso - Burundi - Cameroon - Cape Verde - Central African Republic - Chad - Comoros - D.R. Congo- Republic of the Congo - Côte d'Ivoire- Djibouti - Egypt - Eritrea - Ethiopia -| Equatorial Guinea - Gabon - The Gambia - Ghana - Guinea -| Guinea-Bissau - Kenya -| Lesotho - Liberia -| Libya- Madagascar- Malawi | Mali | Mauritania- Mauritius - Mozambique - Namibia - Niger - Nigeria - Rwanda - São Tomé and Príncipe - Senegal - Seychelles - Sierra Leone- Somalia - South Africa - Sudan - Swaziland - Tanzania - Togo - Tunisia – Uganda- Western Sahara (SADR)- Zambia- Zimbabwe.
Chapter 9
The Southern African Development Community
(SADC)

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is an organization that aims to promote Southern African regional cooperation in economic development.
History
The Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC), which was the forerunner of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), was formed in Lusaka, Zambia, on 1 April 1980, following the adoption of the Lusaka Declaration (entitled Southern Africa: Towards Economic Liberation) by the nine founding member states.
The Declaration and Treaty establishing the Community, which replaced the Coordination Conference, was signed at the Summit of Heads of State or Government on 17 August 1992, in Windhoek, Namibia.
Aims of the SADC
The main aims of the Southern African Development Community are:
- To harmonise the political and socio-economic policies and plans of the member states.
- To mobilise the people of the region and their institutions to take initiatives to develop economic, social and cultural ties across the region, and to participate fully in the implementation of the programmes and projects of the SADC.
- To create appropriate institutions and mechanisms for the mobilisation of requisite resources for the implementation of the programmes and the operations of the SADC and its institutions.
- To develop policies aimed at he progressive elimination of obstacles to free movement of capital and labour, goods and services, and of the peoples of the region generally among member states.
- To promote the development of human resources.
- To promote the development, transfer and mastery of technology.
- To improve economic management and performance through regional cooperation.
- To promote the coordination and harmonisation of the international relations of member states.
- To secure international understanding, cooperation and support, mobilise the inflow of public and private resources in the region.
- To develop such other activities as member states may decide in furtherance of the objectives of SADC.
Regional groupings such as (Southern African Development Community) SADC aim to bring neighbouring countries together. The goal is regional integration. Regional integration is the process by which two or more nation-states agree to co-operate and work closely together to achieve peace, stability and economic development. Usually integration involves one or more written agreements that describe the areas of cooperation in detail, as well as some coordinating bodies representing the countries involved.
This co-operation usually begins with economic integration and as it continues, comes to include political integration. Marcomick (2005) describes regional integration by considering a scale, with zero representing no integration at all between two or more countries. 10 would represent complete integration between two or more countries. This means that the integrating states would actually become a new country - in other words, total integration. The intention of regional integration is to form a centre that will promote the interests of all the member countries - as the old adage says ‘there is strength in numbers.
In Africa, regional integration is necessary considering that the majority of African countries are small, weak and poor. Integrating the countries of Africa will help them in dealing with the issues of globalisation that poses serious threat to poor nations. In international stages such as the United Nations, World Trade Organisation, International Monetary Fund and the World Bank the voices of smaller countries such as Lesotho, Swaziland, Seychelles, Benin, etc are not heard.
With regional integration we are assuming that smaller countries such as Swaziland, Lesotho and Botswana can come together and form one community like the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC). Doing this they can form a collective powerful force that will enable them to deal with such burning issues like eradication of poverty, globalisation and social epidemics like HIV/AIDS.
Looking at the cases of Tanzania, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Angola can highlight the benefits of regional integration. Tanzanian economy has stagnated since the eighties and failed to develop. It is only now that it is active member of the SADC that its economy is beginning to grow. DRC and Angola that have been ravaged by political shenanigans where warlords and rebels were the order of the day are learning from the other member countries like South Africa, Botswana that are politically stable. Communities such as the SADC have organs of politics and economic developments – organs that deal with the promotion and creation of democratic cultures while on the other hand facilitating economic developments to member countries.
SADC’s Decentralised Approach
Before 2001 the countries forming the SADC have identified many common challenges. These challenges are divided into sectors as follows:
Environment and land management. Inland fisheries, forestry and wildlife. Tourism. Culture, information and sport. Marine fisheries and resources. Finance and investment. Human resources development. Industry and trade. Employment and labour. Food, agriculture and natural resources. Water conservation and distribution Transport and communication. Legal affairs. Transport, communications and meteorology. Health.
Crop production
The SADC has, as of August 2001, restructured and adopted a centralised approach in running the integration and development of its 14 member countries. Before the restructuring the SADC have divided and centralised the sectors indicated in the diagram to all the 14 member countries. The aim of decentralising or internationalising the sectors was for SADC to guide and coordinate regional policies and programmes on a country-by-country basis.
With the restructuring of SADC sectors since 2001, SADC has now approached a more centralised approach through which the sectors are grouped into four Directorates, namely;
Trade, Industry, Finance and Investment
Infrastructure and Services. Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources. Social and Human Development and Special Programmes
All these Directorates are based in the SADC Head Quarters in Gaborone, Botswana. With the previous decentralised strategy, each member country was allocated a sector to coordinate. Each country was tasked with a particular sector or sectors. The responsibility for the country charged with particular sectors involved proposing sector policies, development strategies, setting priorities, and processing projects for inclusion in the sectoral programme, monitoring progress and reporting to the SADC Head Quarters. Sectors were allocated to each member country based on the country's perceived strengths and opportunities.
The following is an illustration of how sectors were allocated to each member country based on strengths and opportunities found in that particular country.
- Angola Sector responsibility: Energy Strengths: Angola is rich in mineral resources e.g. oil.
- Botswana Sector responsibility: Agricultural research Strengths: Botswana is mainly a farming country.
- Lesotho Sector responsibility: Environment and land management Strengths: Lesotho is mountainous with many rivers.
- Malawi Sector responsibility: Inland fisheries, forestry and wildlife Strengths: Lakes Nyasa and Victoria.

- Mauritius Sector responsibility: Tourism Strengths: Mauritius is essentially well known tourism country.
- Mozambique Sector responsibility: Culture, information and sport Strengths: Mozal Transport, communications and meteorology.
- Namibia Sector responsibility: Marine fisheries and resources.

- South Africa Sector responsibility: Finance and investiment Strengths: Advanced medical facilities.
- Swaziland Sector responsibility: Human resources development.
- Tanzania Sector responsibility: Industry and trade.
- Zambia Sector responsibility: Employment and labour Strenghts: Mining.
- Zimbabwe Sector responsibility: Food agriculture and natural resources Strengths: Crop production.
The centralised or global strategy has seen all these sectors grouped into four Directorates and based in SADC Head Quarters in Gaborone, Botswana, as already indicated. The four Directorates are the core activities of the SADC headquarters. The previous decentralised policy appeared to promote regional integration and to ensure that each country's strengths and opportunities are explored. The previous system also appeared to have been working considering that a country that is lacking in a particular area can rely on the other country that has strengths on that area. Say for example, if Swaziland is experiencing water shortages, it can source water supply from Lesotho with its large rivers.
When SADC followed the decentralised approach it reasoned along the following lines:
- To offload work done at the SADC Head Quarters to the 14 member countries, allowing the SADC Secretariat time to focus on critical issues.
- To give each member country a sense of control and a feel of belonging to the community by giving responsibilities in each member country.
- The SADC also realised that there is flexibility in the decentralisation of SADC functions, more rapid local responsiveness and attuning the Community to local conditions of each member country.
Decentralisation ensured that the decisions taken are influenced by conditions and cultures of each member country. Decisions taken are often informed decisions. Nevertheless on the operational level the decentralised country by country sectors was too complex to manage and coordinate. Projects were initiated but in most of the cases were not started or after started they were not completed.
The decentralised approach also involved large sums of money that was not always available. With the decentralised approach, member countries were, instead of integrating became more polarised since each country was focusing in developing sectors in their own countries and saw little benefits in working with other member countries. With the decentralised approach, in reality and practice, there was no integration. These are reasons that forced SADC to re-look the decentralised approach and eventually restructured itself by 2001.
Restructured SADC: Developments and achievements
With the restructuring of the SADC, the entire 21 sectors were grouped and centralised. Out of this restructuring process emerged four directorates all based in Gaborone, Botswana.
The main reasons why the SADC centralised its functions are the following:
- SADC wanted to facilitate coordination. SADC saw the decentralised 14 sectors dispersed in the 14 member countries difficult to coordinate.
- To ensure that decisions are consistent within the entire SADC system. When decisions are dispersed around 14 countries, country managers can make decisions at variance with those at the SADC Head Quarters in Botswana. Centralisation of functions reduces this risk.
By centralising all the functions in SADC Head Quarters in Botswana, the Secretariat may find it easier to speed up the integration process without circulating document decisions to various dispersed sectors.
With the present centralised strategy, and through the Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan has mapped out a strategy that would allow member countries’ economies to grow steadily over the years to reach the targeted 7 per cent growth rate. This strategy centres on the twin pillars of good economic governance and good political governance.
Already some Member countries are emerging as continental leaders in terms of macroeconomic policies and poverty reduction strategies as well as institution building and these are: Botswana, Mauritius, Namibia and South Africa. In terms of the economic performance within the Region, Angola is leading the way with a 13.8% growth rate, followed by Mozambique with 8% and Tanzania with 6.2%. Improvements in growth rates have also been witnessed in Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa. On the Public Index Rankings, as contained in the Global Competitiveness Report, four of our Member States ranked among the top ten, with Botswana ranking first. The three others are South Africa, Mauritius and Tanzania(2003) .
Looking at these developments and achievements one can see that the restructured SADC is on a firm foundation in achieving its objectives of speeding development and economic growth, alleviate poverty, enhance the standard and quality of life of the people of Southern Africa. This can be achieved through the success of other SADC activities which covers promoting and defending peace and security and, strengthening and consolidating the long-standing historical, social and cultural affinities and links among the people of the region.
The ultimate objective of SADC, the Community is, therefore, to build a Region in which there will be a high degree of harmonisation and rationalisation to enable the pooling of resources to achieve collective self-reliance in order to improve the living standards of the people of the region.
Member States
SADC-only members
SADC and SACU members
SADC had nine founding member states, all joining on 1 April 1980, namely:
Angola. Botswana. Lesotho. Malawi. Mozambique.Swaziland.
Tanzania. Zambia. Zimbabwe.
Several more states have joined since, bringing the current number of member states to 14:
Namibia - since 31 March 1990 (Member Since Independence. South Africa - since 30 August 1994. Mauritius - since 28 August 1995. Democratic Republic of the Congo - since 8 September 1997. Madagascar - since 18 August 2005. Seychelles also joined on 8 September 1997, but left on 1 July 2004. On 2 December 2005, however, it appeared that the Seychelles would rejoin some time in 2006.Rwanda applied, but its application was rejected because of procedural omissions .
Member States
Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, South Africa, Mauritius, Democratic, Republic of the Congo, Madagascar.

Part 5
Euorassia Organizations
Chapter 10
Commonwealth of Independent States
Commonwealth of Independent States, (CIS), governmental organization founded on December 8, 1991, composed of former Soviet republics, and a partial successor to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The commonwealth originally consisted of three members—Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. Two weeks after establishment of the commonwealth, eight other former Soviet republics—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan—were also admitted as founding members, subject to the approval of their respective parliaments. Although Azerbaijan initially failed to ratify the founding documents, the country formally became a member when the documents were ratified by its legislature in 1993. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania had become independent republics earlier in 1991 and declined to join the commonwealth. Georgia joined in 1993.
Members of the CIS function as independent states. A central authority modeled on the European Community (now called the European Union) was given restricted authority, including authority for establishing a common economic sphere and coordinating foreign and immigration policies, environmental protection, and crime fighting. The USSR was formally disbanded, and the states assumed ownership of its facilities. Leaders placed long-range nuclear and strategic weapons under the joint control of Russian president Boris Yeltsin and the commander and chief of the CIS Armed Forces, Marshal Evgeniy Shaposhnikov, although Ukrainian president Leonid Kravchuk insisted on retaining the right to cancel weapon launches from Ukrainian territory. Republic leaders agreed to honor the USSR's international agreements, including a policy of nuclear disarmament. Russia took the seat on the United Nations Security Council that had belonged to the USSR. The United States recognized the independence of the republics, and subsequently all the republics attained United Nations membership by 1992.
From its inception, the CIS was characterized by infighting between member states and a disregard for written declarations. According to original agreements, republics retained the right to have their own armed forces or national guard units. Republics adopted the Russian ruble as a common currency and agreed on principles of respect for human rights, the need to preserve ethnic minority cultures, and cooperation and coordination of reforms aimed at establishing free-market economies. Disputes soon emerged, however, over control of the Black Sea Fleet, formerly of the USSR, over economic reforms and the lifting of price controls, and over entrusting the disarmament of nuclear weapons in the member states to Russia. Ethnic and regional hostilities that had been restrained by decades of central Soviet authority soon reemerged in civil wars in Georgia, Moldova, Tajikistan, and the North Caucasus area of Russia, and in war between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
Republic parliaments failed to ratify many of the agreements concluded by republic representatives in the first year of the CIS. Several key declarations were supported by a bare majority of CIS members, such as the agreement on collective security, which was originally signed by only six members in 1992, and the CIS charter, which was signed by only seven member states in 1993. Sharp internal political disagreements developed in several republics, including Belarus, over CIS declarations. In addition, a fundamental disagreement arose between republics over the goals and purpose of the CIS. One camp, led by Russia and Kazakhstan, envisaged the CIS as a vehicle for closer economic and political integration, while another camp, led by Ukraine, visualized the CIS as a transitional organization preparing individual republics for complete independence.
In 1993 Kyrgyzstan ignored CIS procedure for introducing separate currencies and issued its own currency, the som, which prompted other states to prepare to abandon the ruble as a common currency of the commonwealth. During the same year the military mission of the CIS was altered when the CIS joint military command was abolished. Control over strategic weapons was transferred to Russia, which gained sole possession of nuclear launch codes.
Institutions
The CIS member states interact and coordinate through the following institutions:
• Council of the Heads of States
• Council of the Heads of Governments
• Council of Foreign Ministers
• Council of Defense Ministers
• Inter-Parliamentary Assembly (IPA)
Established in March 1992 as a consultative institution, the first participants were Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Russia. Between 1993 and 1996, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Moldova also joined. Ukraine joined in 1990 .
IPA sessions are held twice a year in Saint Petersburg, and are composed of parliamentary delegations of the member states. The IPA has nine permanent commissions: on legal issues; on economy and finance; on social policy and human rights; on ecology and natural resources; on defense and security issues; on culture, science, education and information issues; on foreign policy affairs; on state-building and local government; on control budget.
• Economic Court
• Economic Council
• Executive Committee (legal successor of the Executive Secretariat)
• Council of Border Troops Commanders
• Council of Collective Security
• Interstate Bank
• Interstate Statistical Committee
Election Observation Missions
Since 2002 the CIS has been sending observers to elections in countries belonging to the CIS. Several of these observation missions have been extremely controversial, as their findings have been that the elections are "free and fair" only when the pro-Kremlin or ruling-party wins, and therefore has often been in contradiction with the findings of other international organizations from Western liberal-democracies - such as the OSCE, the Council of Europe, or the European Union - which normally label those same elections as having many irregularities.
After the CIS observer mission disputed the final (repeat) round of the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election which followed the Orange Revolution and brought into power the former opposition, Ukraine suspended its membership in the CIS observer missions.
Moves for further integration
CIS Collective Security Treaty
The CIS Collective Security Treaty (CST) was signed on May 15, 1992, by Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, in the city of Tashkent. Azerbaijan likewise signed the treaty on September 24, 1993, Georgia on December 9, 1993 and Belarus on December 31, 1993. The treaty came into effect on April 20, 1994.
The treaty reaffirmed the desire of all participating states to abstain from the use or threat of force. Signatories wouldn't be able to join other military alliances or other groups of states, while an aggression against one signatory would be perceived as an aggression against all.
The CST was set to last for a 5-year period unless extended. On April 2, 1999, the Presidents of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan, signed a protocol renewing the treaty for another five year period -- however Azerbaijan, Georgia and Uzbekistan refused to sign and withdrew from the treaty instead.
On October 7, 2002, the six members of the CST, signed a charter in Chisinau, expanding it and renaming to the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). Nikolai Bordyuzha was appointed secretary general of the new organization.
Russian Language
Russia has been urging for the Russian language to receive official status in all 12 of the CIS member states. So far Russian is an official language in four of these states: Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Russian is also considered an official language in the separatist regions of Abkhazia and Transnistria, as well as the semi-autonomous region of Gagauzia in Moldova.
Viktor Yanukovich, the Moscow-supported presidential candidate in the controversial Ukrainian presidential election, 2004, declared his intention to make Russian an official second language of Ukraine. However, Victor Yushchenko, the winner, is unlikely to do so as he is more closely aligned with the Ukrainian-speaking population.
Common Economic Space
There has been discussion about the creation of a "common economic space" between the countries of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan. Agreement in principle about the creation of this space, was announced after a meeting in the Moscow suburb of Novo-Ogarevo on February 23, 2003.
The Common Economic Space would involve a supranational commission on trade and tariffs that would be based in Kiev, would be initially headed by a representative of Kazakhstan, and would not be subordinate to the governments of the four nations. The ultimate goal would be a regional organization that would be open for other countries to join as well, and could eventually lead even to a single currency. [7]
On 22 May 2003 The Verkhovna Rada (the Ukrainian Parliament) voted 266 votes in favour and 51 against the joint economic space. However most believe that Viktor Yushchenko's victory in the Ukrainian presidential election of 2004 was a significant blow against the project: Yushchenko has shown renewed interest in Ukrainian membership in the European Union, and such membership would be incompatible with the envisioned Common Economic Space.
With the revival of the Eurasian Economic Community in 2005 there is a possibility for the "common economic space" agenda to be implemented in its framework with or without the participation of Ukraine.
Members
Current members: Russia (1991), Belarus (1991), Ukraine (1991), Moldova (1991), Kazakhstan (1991), Azerbaijan (1991), Armenia (1991), Kyrgyzstan (1991), Uzbekistan (1991), Tajikistan (1991), Georgia (1993).
















Chapter 11
Shanghai Cooperation Organization
(SCO)
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is an intergovernmental organization which was founded on June 14, 2001 by leaders of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, the People's Republic of China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Except for Uzbekistan, the other countries had been members of the Shanghai Five; after the inclusion of Uzbekistan in 2001, the members renamed the organization.
History
The Shanghai Five grouping was originally created in 1996 with the signing of the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions in Shanghai by the heads of states of Kazakhstan, the People's Republic of China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan. In 1997 the same countries signed the Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border Regions in a meeting in Moscow.
Subsequent annual summits of the Shanghai Five group occurred in Almaty (Kazakhstan) in 1998, in Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan) in 1999, and in Dushanbe (Tajikistan) in 2000.
In 2001, the annual summit returned to Shanghai, China. There the five member nations first admitted Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Five mechanism (thus transforming it into the Shanghai Six). Then all six heads of state signed on 15 June, 2001, the Declaration of Shanghai Cooperation Organization, praising the role played thus far by the Shanghai Five mechanism and aiming to transform it to a higher level of cooperation.
In June 2002, the heads of the SCO member states met in St. Petersburg, Russia. There they signed the SCO Charter which expounded on the organization's purposes, principles, structures and form of operation, and established it officially from the point of view of international
In July 2005, after the war in Afghanistan and Iraq saw a semi-permanent troop presence of U.S. forces in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, the SCO meeting at its summit in Astana, Kazakhstan, urged them to set a timetable for withdrawing their troops from member states. Since then, Uzbekistan has asked the U.S. to leave the K-2 air base. The Astana summit also saw the induction of India, Pakistan and Iran as observers. Following the successful completion of Sino-Russian military exercises, Russian officials have begun speaking of the SCO taking on a military role and of India also joining these exercises in the future.
Role and Organization
Most observers believe that one of the original purposes of the SCO was to serve as a counterbalance to the United States and in particular to avoid conflicts that would allow the United States to intervene in areas near both Russia and China. Many observers also believe that the organization was formed as a direct response to the threat of missile defense systems by the United States, after the United States reversed course in its nuclear policy and began promoting National Missile Defense, a system that will enable the United States to actually wage what former President of the United States Ronald Reagan called "limited nuclear war."
The SCO is centered around its member nations' Central Asian concerns. Early goals of this organization were mostly security-related issues. This included solving border conflicts, avoiding military conflicts, anti-terrorism, and countering militant Islam.
Russia and China's conflicting interests have limited the groups' ability to act in a coordinated manner. Immediately after the September 11, 2001 attacks, the SCO was unable to develop a coordinated policy against terrorism and was also unable to deal as a collective body with the United States. The United States was able to significantly increase its influence by offering aid and convincing many of its Central Asian members to allow the United States to use their territory as military bases.
Starting in 2003, there was a joint anti-terrorism center built in Shanghai, China.In the July 16 - July 17, 2004 SCO summit, held in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, the SCO agreed to form the Regional Antiterrorism Structure (RATS).
The effort to expand the SCO to include economic issues, courts, and joint military exercises culminated in 100 specific actions that were resolved on September 23, 2004. The SCO has floated ideas for forming a free trade area that will eventually share all resources from foodstuffs to military science, this aim is frustrated by the nationalism of the five main ex-soviet Central Asian states.
The first ever joint military exercise between Russia and China, called Peace Mission 2005 started on August 19, 2005.
The working languages of the organization are Russian and Chinese.
Future membership possibilities
Chinese Assistant Foreign Minister Li Hui has said that the SCO will not take in new members before its six members make serious studies. However the SCO has since encouraged India to join the organization, saying that they would properly consider a membership application should it decide to join the group.
Among other nations of the wider region, Mongolia became the first country to receive observer status in the 2004 Tashkent Summit. Pakistan, India and Iran received observer status at the 2005 SCO summit in Astana of Kazakhstan on July 5, 2005.
The successful 'revolution' in Kyrgyzstan in February 2005 leaves that nation's position in the SCO somewhat vague, despite announcing its intention to hold to the country's previous international agreements. The interim government supported the SCO's July 2005 recommendation for US forces to leave Central Asia, but also announced that US forces in Kyrgyzstan could stay as long as they believed they needed too.






Chapter 12
Eurasian Economic Community
(EAEC)
The Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC or EAEC) was put into motion on 10 October 2000 when Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan signed the treaty. EurAsEC was formally created when the treaty was finally ratified by all five member states in May 2001. EurAsEC grew out of the CIS Customs Union. All the members of EurAsEC are also members of the older Commonwealth of Independent States and the relationship between the two organisations is ambiguous.Having common borders with the rest of the community is a prerequisite for full membership.
In May 2002, Moldova and Ukraine were granted observer status within EurAsEC; however, Ukraine subsequently declared its desire not to become a full member state. Armenia received observer status in April 2003.Recent developments in Ukraine and Moldova during 2004 and 2005 are demonstrating that these countries currently don't want full membership in the organisation.
Uzbekistan applied for membership in October 2005 when the process of merging of Central Asian Cooperation Organization (CACO) and the Eurasian Economic Community began. It joined on 25 January 2006. It is not clear what will happen to the status of current CACO observers, that are not observers to EurAsEC (Georgia and Turkey).
With the revival of EurAsEC in 2005 there is a possibility for the Common Economic Space agenda to be implemented in its framework with or without the participation of Ukraine.
Members
Current members: Russia (2001) Belarus (2001) Kazakhstan (2001) Kyrgystan (2001) Tajikistan (2001) Uzbekistan (2006)
• Observers: Moldova (2002) Ukraine (2002) Armenia (2003)
Aims
The aims of EurAsEC include:
• Full-scale customs union and common market.
• Harmonisation of customs tariffs.
• Development of common guidelines on border security.
• Establishment of the general rules of trade in goods and in services and of their access to the domestic markets.
• The introduction of the standardised currency exchange regulation and of currency control.
• Development and the implementation of the joint programmes of social and economic development.
• Creation of equal conditions for production and entrepreneurial activity.
• The formation of the common market for transport services and united transport system.
• The formation of general energy market.
• Equal rights for citizens of participating states to obtain medical aid.
• Equal rights for citizens of participating states to enter into higher education.
• Rapprochement and the harmonisation of national legislation.
Institutional framework
• Intergovermental Council
• Secretariat
• Commission of the Permanent Representatives
• Interstate parliamentary Assembly
• Law Court of the Association
• Integration Committee





Part 6
Western hemisphere
Chapter 13
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA

NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992.
From left to right: (Standing) Mexican President Salinas, US President Bush, Canadian Prime Minister Mulroney
(Seated) Jaime Serra Puche, Carla Hills, Michael Wilson.
Source: George Bush Presidential Library and Museum
The North American Free Trade Agreement, known usually as NAFTA, is a free trade agreement among Canada, the United States, and Mexico. NAFTA went into effect on January 1, 1994. NAFTA is also used to refer to the tripartite trading bloc of North American countries.
NAFTA called for immediately eliminating duties on half of all U.S. goods shipped to Mexico and gradually phasing out other tariffs over a period of about 14 years. Restrictions were to be removed from many categories, including motor vehicles and automotive parts, computers, textiles, and agriculture. The treaty also protected intellectual property rights (patents, copyrights, and trademarks) and outlined the removal of restrictions on investment among the three countries. Provisions regarding worker and environmental protection were added later as a result of supplemental agreements signed in 1993. This agreement was an expansion of the earlier Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement of 1989. Unlike the European Union, NAFTA does not create a set of supranational governmental bodies, nor does it create a body of law which is superior to national law. NAFTA is a treaty under international law. (Under United States law it is classed as a congressional-executive agreement rather than a treaty, reflecting a peculiar sense of the term "treaty" in United States constitutional law that is not followed by international law or the laws of other states.)
The agreement was initially pursued by free-trade conservative governments in the US and Canada, led by Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, and US President George H. W. Bush. There was considerable opposition on both sides of the border, but in the United States it was able to secure passage after President Bill Clinton made its passage a major legislative initiative in 1993. After intense political debate and the negotiation of several side agreements, the US House passed NAFTA by 234-200 (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats voting in favor) and the US Senate passed it by 61-38. Some opposition persists to the present day, although labour unions in Canada have recently removed objections to the agreement from their platforms.
The United States and Canada have been arguing for years over the United States' decision to impose a 27% duty on Canadian softwood lumber imports. Canada has filed numerous motions to have the duty eliminated and the collected duties returned to Canada. Canada has won every case brought before the NAFTA tribunal, the last being on August 10, 2005. The United States responded by saying "We are, of course, disappointed with the [NAFTA panel's] decision, but it will have no impact on the anti-dumping and countervailing duty orders," (Neena Moorjani, spokeswoman for U.S. Trade Representative Rob Portman). The failure of the U.S. to adhere to the terms of the treaty has generated widespread political debate in Canada. The debate includes imposing countervailing duties on American products, and possibly shutting off all or some energy shipments, such as natural gas.
Effects
Controversy
NAFTA has been controversial since it was first proposed. Transnational corporations have tended to support NAFTA in the belief that lower tariffs would increase their profits. Labor unions in Canada and the United States have opposed NAFTA for fear that jobs would move out of the country due to lower labor costs in Mexico. Some politicians, economists, and policy experts have opposed free trade for fear that it will turn countries, such as Canada, into permanent branch plant economies. Farmers in Mexico have opposed and still oppose NAFTA because the heavy agriculture subsidies for farmers in the United States have put a great deal of downward pressure on Mexican agricultural prices, forcing many farmers out of business. Wages there have decreased by as much as 20 percent in some sectors. NAFTA's approval was quickly followed by an uprising amongst Zapatista revolutionaries, and tension between them and the Mexican government remains a major issue. Furthermore, NAFTA was accompanied by dramatic reduction of the influence of trade unions in Mexico's urban areas. NAFTA has been accompanied by a dramatic increase of illegal immigration from Mexico to the United States; presumably, a significant fraction of these people are farmers forced off their land by bankruptcy. Opposition to NAFTA also comes from environmental, social justice, and other advocacy organizations that believe NAFTA has detrimental non-economic impacts to public health, the environment, etc.
Chapter 11
Another matter that is particularly controversial is "Chapter 11", which allows corporations to sue federal governments in the NAFTA region if they feel a regulation or government decision adversely affects their investment. It is argued this provision scares the government from passing environmental regulation because of possible threats from an international business. For example Methanex, a Canadian corporation, filed a $970 million suit against the United States, claiming that a Californian ban on MTBE, a substance that had found its way into many wells in the state, was hurtful to the corporation's sales of MTBE. In another case Metalclad, an American corporation, was awarded $16.5 million from Mexico after the latter passed regulations banning the toxic waste dump it intended to construct in El Llano, Aguascalientes. Further, it has been argued that the provision benefits the interests of Canadian and American corporations disproportionately more than Mexican businesses, which often lack the resources to pursue a suit against the much wealthier states. It has been a longtime fear of some Canadians that this provision gives large US companies too much power. There was one case where a Natural Gas company in Nova Scotia which pumped from Sable Island wanted to sell cheaper gas to residents in New Brunswick, a Canadian province, but threats of a lawsuit over Chapter 11 stopped these plans in their tracks. .......
Since NAFTA was signed, it has been difficult to analyze its macroeconomic effects due to the large number of other variables in the global economy. Various economic studies have generally indicated that rather than creating an actual increased trade, NAFTA has caused trade diversion, in which the NAFTA members now import more from each other at the expense of other countries worldwide. Some economists argue that NAFTA has increased concentration of wealth in both Mexico and the United States.
Chapter 19
Also contentious is Chapter 19 of the NAFTA. Chapter 19 of the NAFTA replaces judicial review of antidumping and countervailing duty determinations with binational panel review. For example, in the United States, review of agency decisions imposing antidumping and countervailing duties are normally heard before the U.S. Court of International Trade, an Article III court. NAFTA parties, however, have the option of appealing the decisions to binational panels composed of five citizens from the two relevant NAFTA countries. The panelists are generally lawyers experienced in international trade law. The panel is charged with determining whether agency determinations involving antidumping and countervailing duties comport with the NAFTA country's domestic law. Chapter 19 is unique in international dispute settlement in that it applies a country's own law rather than international law.
In the case of determinations involving the United States, a Chapter 19 panel is expected to examine whether the agency's determination is supported by "substantial evidence." This standard assumes significant deferrence to the domestic agency.
Some of the most controversial trade disputes in recent years such as the U.S.-Canada softwood lumber dispute have been litigated before Chapter 19 panels.
Decisions by Chapter 19 panels can be challenged before a NAFTA extraordinary challenge committee. However, an extraordinary challenge committee does not function as an ordinary appeal. Under the NAFTA, it will only vacate or remand a decision if the decision involves a significant and material error that threatens the integrity of the NAFTA dispute settlement system. As of January 2006, no NAFTA party have sucessfully challenged a Chapter 19 panel's decision before an extraordinary challenge committee.
Canada
In Canada a large amount of the opposition to NAFTA comes from fears over the possible effects of various clauses and articles of the treaty. For example, if something is sold even once as a commodity, the government cannot stop its sale in the future. This of course applies to the water from Canada's Great Lakes and rivers, fueling fears over the possible destruction of Canadian ecosystems and Canada's water supply. Other fears come from the effects NAFTA has had on Canadian law making. In 1996, MMT, a chemical additive that some studies had linked to nerve damage, was brought into Canada by an American company. The Canadian government banned the importation of the additive but, when sued by the American company, was forced to settle out of court. The American company argued that their additive had not been conclusively linked to any health dangers, and that the prohibition was damaging to their company.













Chapter 14
Organization of American State
The Organization of American States (OAS; OEA in the other three official languages) is an international organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States. Its members are the 35 independent nations of the Americas.
History
The notion of closer hemispheric union in the American continent was first put forward by the Liberator Simón Bolívar who, at the 1826 Congress of Panama, proposed creating a league of American republics, with a common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational parliamentary assembly. This meeting was attended by representatives of Gran Colombia (comprising the modern-day nations of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela), Peru, the United Provinces of Central America, and Mexico, but the grandly titled Treaty of Union, League, and Perpetual Confederation was ultimately only ratified by Gran Colombia. Bolívar's dream soon foundered irretrievably with civil war in Gran Colombia, the disintegration of Central America, and the emergence of national rather than continental outlooks in the newly independent American republics.
The pursuit of regional solidarity and cooperation again came to the forefront in 1889–90, at the First International Conference of American States. Gathered together in Washington, D.C., 18 nations resolved to found the International Union of American Republics, served by a permanent secretariat called the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics (renamed the "International Commercial Bureau" at the Second International Conference in 1901–02). These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception to which today's OAS and its General Secretariat trace their origins.
At the Fourth International Conference of American States (Buenos Aires, 1910), the name of the organization was changed to the "Union of American Republics" and the Bureau became the "Pan American Union".
The experience of World War II convinced hemispheric governments that unilateral action could not ensure the territorial integrity of the American nations in the event of extra-continental aggression. To meet the challenges of global conflict in the postwar world and to contain conflicts within the hemisphere, they adopted a system of collective security, the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) signed in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro.
The Ninth International Conference of American States was held in Bogotá between March and May 1948 and led by U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall, a meeting which led to a pledge by members to fight communism in the Americas. This was the event that saw the birth of the OAS as it stands today, with the signature by 21 American countries of the Charter of the Organization of American States on 30 April 1948 (in effect since December 1951). The meeting also adopted the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the world's first general human rights instrument.
The transition from the Pan American Union to OAS was smooth. The Director General of the former, Alberto Lleras Camargo, became the Organization's first Secretary General.
Significant milestones in the history of the OAS since the signing of the Charter have included the following:
• 1959: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights created.
• 1961: Charter of Punta del Este signed, launching the Alliance for Progress.
• 1969: American Convention on Human Rights signed (in force since 1978).
• 1970: OAS General Assembly established as the Organization's supreme decision-making body.
• 1991: Adoption of Resolution 1080, which requires the Secretary General to convene the Permanent Council within ten days of a coup d'état in any member country.
• 1994: First Summit of the Americas (Miami), which resolved to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas by 2005.
• 2001: Inter-American Democratic Charter adopted.
Goals and purpose
In the words of Article 1 of the Charter, the goal of the member nations in creating the OAS was "to achieve an order of peace and justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and their independence." Article 2 then defines eight essential purposes:
• To strengthen the peace and security of the continent.
• To promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect for the principle of nonintervention.
• To prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the pacific settlement of disputes that may arise among the member states.
• To provide for common action on the part of those states in the event of aggression.
• To seek the solution of political, judical, and economic problems that may arise among them
• To promote, by cooperative action, their economic, social, and cultural development.
• To eradicate extreme poverty, which constitutes an obstacle to the full democratic development of the peoples of the hemisphere.
• To achieve an effective limitation of conventional weapons that will make it possible to devote the largest amount of resources to the economic and social development of the member states.
Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the Cold War, the return to democracy in Latin America, and the thrust toward globalization, the OAS made major efforts to reinvent itself to fit the new context. Its stated priorities now include the following:
• Strengthening democracy: Between 1962 and 2002, the Organization sent multinational observation missions to oversee free and fair elections in the member states on more than 100 occasions. The OAS also works to strengthen national and local government and electoral agencies, to promote democratic practices and values, and to help countries detect and defuse official corruption.
• Working for peace: Special OAS missions have supported peace processes in Nicaragua, Suriname, Haiti, and Guatemala. The Organization has played a leading part in the removal of landmines deployed in the Americas and it has led negotiations to resolve the continent's remaining border disputes (Guatemala/Belize; Peru/Ecuador). Work is also underway on the construction of a common inter-American front to counter the scourge of terrorism.
• Defending human rights: The agencies of the inter-American human rights system provide a venue for the denunciation and resolution of human rights violations in individual cases. They also monitor and report on the general human rights situation in the member states.
• Fostering free trade: The OAS is one of the three agencies currently engaged in drafting a treaty that will establish a hemispheric free trade area from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego.
• Fighting the drugs trade: The Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission was established in 1986 to coordinate efforts and crossborder cooperation in this area.
• Promoting sustainable development: The goal of the OAS's Inter-American Council for Integral Development is to promote economic development and combating poverty. OAS technical cooperation programs address such areas as river basin management, the conservation of biodiversity, planning for global climate change, and natural disaster mitigation.
Perspectives on the Organization
From its creation up until, at the least, the mid-1980s, the OAS was a frequent target for critics, particularly those on the left of the political spectrum, who accused it of being a mere arm of U.S. foreign policy – "Washington's colonial office", it was scornfully labeled (this is sometimes attributed to Fidel Castro, but is not verified; see [5]). This interpretation was borne out by the alacrity with which the Organization moved, at Washington's bidding, to expel Cuba in 1962; in contrast, the OAS never took steps to suspend the membership of the various dictatorships that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s and were disrepectful of human rights and democracy – Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Guatemala – but that differed from Cuba in their political orientation.
The return to democracy that took place in the 1980s and 1990s saw the emergence of new trends within the OAS. The Organization's new direction has taken it into areas of greater direct relevance to the peoples of the continent: for example, its highly successful demining programs in Central America and the Andean region. Perhaps more importantly, the Organization's other member states (particularly the South Americans) now appear to be reasserting their political independence and assuming positions that are much less subservient to U.S. interests.
Evidence that the U.S. no longer holds hegemonic sway over the Organization has been noted, for example, in:
• The democratic election of President Hugo Chavez was verified by an OAS delegation in 2004.
• The refusal of the 2003 General Assembly to elect Washington's chosen candidate, Rafael E. Martinez, to a seat on the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights. This was the first time the seven-member Commission had been without a U.S. presence and, indeed, one of the candidates elected in preference to Martinez was a Venezuelan.
• The deadlock in the 2005 election of the Organization's new secretary general, which, for the first time ever, saw a genuine division among the member states and was the first occasion on which the U.S.-backed candidate was not elected.
• South American Community of Nations
Organization of American States (OAS)
Antigua and Barbuda - Argentina - Bahamas - Barbados - Belize - Bolivia - Brazil - Canad - Chile - Colombia - Costa Rica - Cuba - Dominica - Dominican Republic- Ecuador - El Salvador - Grenada - Guatemala - Guyana - Haiti - Honduras - Jamaica- Mexico - Nicaragua - Panama - Paraguay - Peru - Saint Lucia - Saint Vincent and the Grenadines - Saint Kitts and Nevis - Suriname - Trinidad and Tobago - United States of America- Uruguay - Venezuela.
Membership and adhesions
All 35 independent nations of the Americas are members of the OAS. Upon foundation on 5 May 1948 there were 21 members:



Chapter 15
South American Community of Nations
The South American Community of Nations (CSN) (Spanish: Comunidad Sudamericana de Naciones, Portuguese: Comunidade Sul-Americana de Nações, Dutch: Zuid-Amerikaanse Statengemeenschap) will be a continent-wide free trade zone that will unite two existing free-trade organizations—Mercosur and the Andean Community—eliminating tariffs for non-sensitive products by 2014 and sensitive products by 2019. The headquarters of this new organization will be in Lima while the South American Bank will be in Brasilia according to the agreements during the meetings. Complete integration between the Andean Community and Mercosur into the South American Community of Nations is expected by 2007.
At the Third South American Summit, on 8 December 2004, presidents or representatives from twelve South American nations signed the Cuzco Declaration, a two-page statement of intent, announcing the foundation of the South American Community. Panama attended the signing ceremony as observer.
Leaders announced their intention to model the new community after the European Union, including a common currency, parliament, and passport. According to Allan Wagner, Secretary General of the Andean Community, a complete union like that of the EU should be possible by 2019.
The mechanics of the new entity should come out at the First South American Community of Nations Heads of State Summit, to be held in Brasilia, in September 29-30 2005. A constitution is also expected to be drafted in 2005. The Second Summit will be held in Bolivia. No new institutions will be created in the first phase, so as not to increase bureaucracy, and the community will use the existing institutions belonging to the previous trade blocs.
Origins
Simón Bolívar—known as El Libertador ("The Liberator"), directly responsible for the independence of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia in the early years of the 19th century, and honored with statues in the capital cities of practically every American nation—had the goal of creating a federation of Spanish American nations to ensure prosperity and security after independence. Bolívar never achieved this goal, and died an unpopular figure because of his heavy-handed attempts to establish strong central governments in the nations he led to independence.
South American Community of Nations (SACN)
Argentina - Bolivia - Brazil - Chile - Colombia - Ecuador- Guyana - Paraguay - Peru - Suriname – Uruguay -Venezuela.














Part 7
Arab Organizations


Chapter 16

League of Arab States (LAS)

The current members of the Arab League
Egypt - March 22, 1945 (Founder) (suspended, 1979-1989) Iraq - March 22, 1945 (Founder) Jordan - March 22, 1945 Lebanon - March 22, 1945 (Founder) Saudi Arabia - March 22, 1945 (Founder) Syria - March 22, 1945 (Founder) Yemen - May 5, 1945 (Founder) Libya - March 28, 19531 Sudan - January 19, 1956 Morocco - October 1, 1958 Tunisia - October 1, 1958 Kuwait - July 20, 1961 Algeria - August 16, 1962 United Arab Emirates - June 12, 1971 Bahrain - September 11, 1971 Qatar - September 11, 1971 Oman - September 29, 1971 Mauritania - November 26, 1973 Somalia - February 14, 1974 Palestine - succeeding to the position held by the Palestine Liberation Organization since September 9, 1976 Djibouti - April 9, 1977 Comoros - November 20, 1993 In January 2003, Eritrea joined the Arab League as an observer
By the end of the millennium, the League of Arab States celebrated its 55th anniversary; which postdated the emergence of an Arab Regional system, assuming a unique character, which has then become a distinctive and indispensable characteristic, namely: the national quality. However, the Arab League's membership has expanded as from seven Arab Member States, (forming a total number of independent Arab countries during the mid - forties) so as to reach 22 Arab Member States (forming the total number of Member States in the Arab Regional System). Actually, the LAS has passed through several stages of development and was contemporaneous with several numerous attempts for its re-structuring. These stages and attempts reflect the efforts exerted to modernize the same Arab Regional Regime.
Inspite of the call for the Arab unity that has been put forward, since several centuries, yet still the idea of setting up an Arab Organization to gather the Arab countries together, did not crystallize - or in other words - its features were not elaborated except during the Second World War, due to Arab, Regional and International changes. On the Arab Level, we can say that the Arab reality formed the corner stone for this historical development:
- The atmosphere of war, was absolutely suitable for the growth of the national movements and the activity of resistance against the presence of aggression, which was - in turn - reflected on the independence of an increasing number of Arab countries, while - at the same time - has generated the need to establish a kind of balance between the political powers, in which Egypt has played a very active role.
- The need for unity has been boasted in conjunction with the awareness of the Zionist movement dangers, the flocking of Zionist emigrations to Palestine and the impossibility of disregarding the role played by the mandating country "Britain", so as to realize the dream of the Jewish State.
- It is due to the educational missions, that the friction with the West has augmented leading - in turn - to the receptiveness to new ideas and political trends, which it has been operating, on top of which is the national idea.
- It seems that there is a considerable volume of commercial exchange and transfer of individuals between the Arab East countries, in a way that appeared as if it will ensure the material spiritual, cultural and tentative basis for unity.
On the regional level the neighboring countries basically - Turkey & Iran, have passed through various developments that helped them to focus on their own domestic affairs and distracted them from aborting the Arab attempts for unity. As for Turkey's defeat in the First World War, and its fear from an establishment of a Communist Regime on its borders and the signs of change in its relations and alliances within the area extending from the East to the West, are the most distinctive basic factors and items adopted in its internal and external agenda. At a time in which it captured the Iskenderun Region in Syria, and its failure to cut out Mosul from Iraq, by hoisting the space separating it from its Arab - Islamic milieu, and acquiring it an additional greater dimension.
As for Iran, which was ruled not only by a domineering Royal Regime but also by Western Imperialism dominating all its resources, it was threatened - more than Turkey - by the danger of a powerful communist neighbor, with whom its shares long borders and who did not hide its imperialistic intentions, neither in its maritime passage ways nor its petroleum.
There is a transitional stage, as one of the development stages of the international system that followed the Second World War, which - in turn - drew the United States' attention to the neighboring countries to the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and China, while temporarily leaving the Arab area alone, to lie within the track of interest of Britain and France, with their long experience in the Arab Affairs. As for Britain, in particular, it is of vital importance to elaborate two extremely important facts, while analyzing Britain's stance towards the establishment of the League of Arab States.
The first fact: Britain played a consolidating role for the establishment of the League of Arab States, for reasons that would serve its interests.
The second Fact: The role played by Britain was complimentary or auxiliary and not originative or imitative. This is because there is no country whatsoever, and however much was its degree of political domination during a certain historical decade, that can give life to an existing idea, or because the British Political behavior - as will be clear later on - was antagonistic and hostile to the development of the Arab bonds and pursuant to competition with it, by administering an artificial relationship, the most important of which is the Middle East bonds. There is another saying that: " during the Forties of the 20th Century, Britain found out that one of the institutional forms encompassing the independent Arab countries at that time, has served its interests, from various basic factors, namely:
First: Pursuing the aspirations of the area and handling them in anew form, in consideration to the international competitions and the French ones, in particular.
Second: Responding to the independent and liberal expanding trend, which seemed to be one of the basic features of the post war international relations.
Third: This factor is closely connected with related to the previous item, as well as making use of the Intifadas that were waged against them, comprising the Iraqi war that was waged during the times of Rashid Aly Al-Kilany the muting movements extended against it, in Egypt
Fourth: Solving the cause of the Jews in Palestine, while being illusioned with imagination that the foundation of the Jewish state, can never be accomplished except through a general Arab framework, capable of presenting concessions to the Jews, as well as acting as unifier and co- ordinator of the Arabs' opinions, in this respect.
Fifth: Making use of the Second World War experience that confirmed the unified economic and strategic nature of the Arab area, which is well known for being an extremely wealthy Petroleum reservoir area which equals one third of the well known international reserve at that time. It is also considered a crossing point to one of the most important watercourses (streams), for example the Suez Canal stream. Besides it is the linking point between the East and the West. Hence, feeling the need for dealing with this reality, in a way that suits it.
This was the first time that the idea of establishing the Arab League, was discussed so clearly. In this context, Sir Anthony Eden, British Minister of Foreign Affairs has delivered a speech on 29/5/1941 saying: "The Arab world has made a lot of progress since the settlement that took place post World War ?. Beside, a number of Arab ideologist wish the Arab nations, a greater scope of unity, than what it is up to, now. However, the Arabs are looking forward to gain our support, in their attempts towards realizing this goal. We should not disregard our friends' response to this request. It seems quite natural and right to foster and enhance cultural, economic and political relations between Arab countries. Furthermore, His Majesty's Government will totally support any plan that will gain general consensus".
After less than 2 years of this date, particularly on 24/2/1943, and in the British House of Commons Sir Eden has re-affirmed that the British Government sympathizes every movement carried out by the Arabs, aiming at realizing their economic, cultural and political unity.
Executive Steps:
In an investment to the personal factors justifying unity and to the suitable regional and international circumstances, executive steps have started to be undertaken so as to put this target of unity, into action.
Thereupon, the Egyptian Prime minister Mustafa Al-Nahas, has taken the initiative, after almost one year of Sir Anthony Eden's speech. His Excellency cordially invited both: the Syrian Prime Minister (Gamil Miridin) and the President of the Lebanese National(Bsharaa Alkhoury to visit Cairo, so as to negotiate with them, the idea of "establishing an Arab League to foster the bonds of relations between the Arab countries, that gained access to the League".
Accordingly, a series of bilateral negotiations have been held between Egypt - on the one hand - and representatives of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Yemen, on the other hand. These negotiations have resulted in the crystallization of two basic trends for unity, namely:
The first trend: calls for what may be titled by a "Sub- Regional Unit or a Subsidiary Unit", under trusteeship of "Great Syria" or the "Fertile Crescent".
The Second Trend: calls for a more general and comprehensive kind of unity, embracing all the independent Arab countries. This trend is to guarantee two subsidiary opinions. One of them calls for a Federal or a Confederal unity between the concerned countries. The second opinion calls for an intermediate form that would help in accomplishing co-operation and co-ordination of all aspects, while - at the same time - maintaining the independence and sovereignty of countries.
However, when the Preparatory Committee held a meeting with the representatives of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt and Yemen (as a Controller) during the period from 25/9 - 7/10/1944. It directly overbalanced the tendency calling for the unity of the Arab independent countries in a way that would not affect its unity and sovereignty. Whereas, the committee has determined to name this tangible kind of unity by "The League of Arab States". It preferred this naming to "Confederation" and "Union". The first naming refers to an accidental relation, whereas the other naming invalidate the specialization agreed upon to be transferred to the developing Arab Organization. Thereupon, and in light of all the a /m, the Alexandria Protocol" has been reached, to be the first document that concerns the Arab League, stating the following principles:
- The establishment of the "League of Arab States" comprising independent Arab countries that accept accession to it, while -at the same time - form a Council in which all the Member States in the Arab States in the Arab League, will be on equal footing.

- The Arab League Council is entrusted to adhere to the implementation of inter - member states agreements and periodical meeting to enhance and foster relations between them and co-ordinate between its political plans, so as to realize the required co-operation between them and maintain their independence and sovereignty, against any aggression, by all possible political means and generally considering the domestic affairs of the Arab countries. The resolutions adopted by the Arab League Council are binding to the assenting parties, except for cases implying differences between two League Member States who will thus refer to the Council to settle conflicts between them. In such cases, the resolutions adopted by the Arab League Council, will be binding and enforceable
- It is inpermissible to use power to settle conflicts that may arise between two League Member States. It is also illegal to follow a foreign policy that would adversely harm the policy followed by the League of the Arab States or any of its Member States' Policy.
- admitting the sovereignty and independence of the organizing countries and their actual present borders.
The protocol has also implied two resolutions relating to the following items, namely:
- Urgent need to respect Lebanon's independence and sovereignty.
- To consider Palestine as an important element in the Arab countries set up, without prejudice to the Arab rights and without causing any damage to peace and independence of Arab countries. They have to support the cause of Arab Palestinians by realizing their legitimate rights and maintaining their just rights.
This protocol has been signed on 7/10/1944 by Heads of Delegations participating in the Preparatory Committee, with the exception of Saudi Arabia and Yemen, who have successively signed the protocol on 3/1/1944 and on 5/2/1945, after being raised to His Excellency, King Abdul Aziz Al Saud and the Imam Yehia Hamid.
As a result of 16 meetings held by the above mentioned concerned parties at the Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Headquarters, during the period 17/2 - 3/3/1945, the Charter was adopted, after being amended, at Al - Zaafaran Palace, in Cairo.
The Arab League Charter consisted of a preamble, 20 articles, 3 appendices, where the First Appendix dealt with Palestine within this context. The Arab League Council has chosen a representative (i.e. for Palestine), so as to take part in its acts, until it gains independence. The second Appendix tackled co-operation with the non-independent countries, who -at the same time- are non Member Sates in the Arab League Council. The Third and Last Appendix relates to the assignment of Mr. Abdul Rahman Azzam, in his capacity as Minister Plenipotentiary in the Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to be the First Secretary General of the League of Arab States, for a period of 2 years.
Also the Charter consists the type of organizational and procedural membership and provisions, the Arab League Council and the Permanent and Budgetary Committees, the Arab League Headquarters and its General Secretariat, the diplomatic privileges, the withdrawal or dismissal from the Arab League, the Charter amendment and, finally, the ratification procedures and the group of objective rules relating to the commitments of Member States towards each other, implying every country's respect to the ruling system of the other country, as well as the peaceful settlement of inter-conflicts, and co-ordinating their foreign policies should be performed in a way that would not indemnify the interests of any of them, and enhance their sincere efforts and co-operation not only in repulsing any aggression on any Arab League Member State, but also co-operating together in various economic, social and cultural affairs.
Charter was ratified on 23/3/1945 by the Arab countries representatives except for Saudi Arabia and Yemen, who have later on signed the Charter. However, the Palestinian Parties' representatives, attended the ratification session. Accordingly, the League of Arab States designated 22nd March, as an official date to celebrate the annual anniversary of the Arab League Charter. In this respect, we can register 3 remarks, namely:
- The Charter was a kind of harmonization between the regional and national tendencies, which was - in turn - reflected on the League by considering it an organization based on voluntary co-operation between the Member States, to be based on equality and mutual respect so as to realize the major goal of independence. Besides, it has also been reflected on its situation as an inter-government organization and not as a superior authority and being given preference over and above.
- The Charter has materialized a case of political accord and general satisfaction (i.e.) The Arab League has not been established by the rise of a dominating regional power that imposes its will on others, but was rather a result to a number of balances between the concerned parties.
- Both principles of sovereignty and equality have become the basis of unanimous vote, joint security order and peaceful settlement of conflicts.
However, the general satisfaction and consensus serving as a strong base for the establishment of the organization, has definitely implied positive and negative impacts.
The positive factor was significant in maintaining the adherence to order, and insuring its flexibility, while - at the same time - impeding all attempts exerted by one country or a limited number of countries, to have a dominant influence over the Arab League. Whereas, the negative aspect was significant in the fact that the base of unanimous voting has sometimes led to a considerable amount of deadlock and formalism in performance, where the League, moved steadily and effectively only in case of unanimous voting to its resolutions, and vice - versa is correct.
Development:
Ever since its establishment, several attempts have been exerted to develop the Arab League. . Such a step was considered a kind of reconciliatory solution in a peace making attempt, so as to attain the required attnement between the national and regional associations. This of course, was a direct response to the prompt action undertaken by the League of Arab States ,Charter in this respect, as not to keep pace with the enhancement and reinforcement of the association, which the Arab League has established and materialized. In this context, the Charter has brought into being two probable mechanisms that need development, namely:
First: the instrument of amending the Charter itself, by reference to article (19) in the Charter, stating the possibility of amendment, according to the consensus 2/3 of the majority, so as to create stronger and deeper ties between the Member States and also establish an Arab Court of Justice.
Second: The instrument, which it originated for fostering inter-relations and ties between two or more of its Member States.
In pursuance to all the above mentioned, the Arab reality witnessed attempts for examining the two above mentioned instruments in various Spheres, namely: political, economic, strategic, legal and managerial.
Politically:
The Political Committee was formed on 30/11/1946, at a time of the flare up of the conflict going on with the Zionist Powers and taking place in Palestine. While also the emergence of the need to activate political negotiations between Member States and co-ordinating between situations and attitudes in this respect. Inspite of the fact that the Formation Resolution stipulated that the membership in the committee should be on the Ministerial Level. Hence, after 5 years of the committee's operation, in other words, the League Council issued a resolution in 1951 stipulating, opening the door of membership for Heads of Governments and Heads of delegations to the Arab League, according to its request. However, among the most important accomplishments realized by the committee, were the following:
- Crystallizing the Joint Defense and Economic co-operation Treaty. Further to the co-ordination of Arab situations towards international causes.
- Making preparations for the Arab Summit conferences agenda, as well as raising their reports to the meetings of Summit Conferences' meetings. This is what has been actually realized during the first five Summit Conferences.
On the other hand, the First Arab Conference that was held in Cairo, on 1964, after Israel's transference to the River Jordan, adopted a resolution, stating the periodical annual convention of Summit Conferences. However, post the First Arab Resolution stating regular convention of sessions, the Cairo Summit held on October, 2000, adopted a resolution stating the adoption of this principle, to be inserted to the Charter supplement.
Economically and Strategically:
The Joint Defense and Economic Co-operation Treaty signed on 1950 has connected between the economic and strategic aspects. Actually, it represents a pre-comprehension to the multi-security dimensions and exceeding the defensive or security dimension.
On the other hand, article (6) in the Treaty, provided for the formation of a Joint Defence Council that can adopt resolutions binding to all members, with a majority of 2/3. It was thus considered at that time, a qualitative transition that tackles a unanimous approval of the majority, or resolutions adopted by the Arab League.
However, after the establishment of the Jewish state in 1948, there was a dire need for an Arab agglomeration to confront the Israeli danger. In this context and in 1948, Syria presented a suggestion to conclude a political military alliance treaty between the Arab League Member States. Its suggestion has been referred to the political committee, which, in turn, formed a special committee known by "Collective Solidarity Committee" which received ideas and projects from Lebanon, Egypt, Iraq, and Syria and has succeeded in ratifying the treaty.
On the International level: "The Tripartite Declaration" issued by the United States, France and Britain, has explicitly expressed the Arab tendency, aiming at subjecting the Arab-Israeli conflict priorities to the conflict between the Western and Eastern camps priorities. This was to be realized by amalgamating Israel with the Arab countries, to function under a Middle East Organization. Accordingly, these pressures had to be confronted by crystallizing a strategic national identity for Arab countries, under cover of a national system to be supported by a sustained Security characteristic, of a different nature than the "other" regional system.
And In this context, an issue of conforming with the United Nations Charter, focusing on "Collective Security" conception, as stipulated in articles: 52-53-54, Chapter 2, in the section relating to "Regional Organizations", has been raised.
Thereupon, a Joint Defence Treaty has been ratified focusing on the enhancement of Collective Security, by stating the peaceful inter - settlement of disputes between the concerned parties in their relations with other countries. It also stated the inpermissability of these countries to conclude international agreements incompatible with the said treaty, and also act in a disconsonant manner with other countries, to be inconsistent with the Treaty objectives. It is noteworthy that these principles have supplemented and enriched the Charter, by laying down a concept to the machineries that will consolidate the Arab National Security. Further to the above mentioned Treaty, it has provided for the establishment of many bodies relating Collective Security , namely :
- The Joint Defence Council, comprising Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Defence, in the contracting countries, or whoever represents them.
- Military Committee, comprising representatives and the general staff of the contracting countries armies, so as to co-ordinate the joint defence plans.
- The Military Consultative Board comprising the Chief of Staff of contracting countries' armies, so as to supervise the united military committee, to be presided by the country having more ammunition and army forces, as long as there is no unanimous Arab governmental approval for choosing another country.
On the other hand, the Treaty tackled the economic aspect in the light of which it called for reinforcement and evaluation of Arab economic relations.
It is however noteworthy that since its establishment the League of Arab States has attached great importance to this economic aspect as one of the Joint Arab Action items as stated in the Economic and Social Council related resolution, laying stress on facilitating and developing the Arab commercial exchange in 1953, while also ratifying the Arab Economic Unity Agreement in 1957, to be followed by issuing a resolution for the establishment of the Common Arab Market in 1964.
Nevertheless, the importance of the "Joint Arab Economic Action" has augmented, serving as a lever to the Joint Arab Action at times of critical Arab Political relations. This has taken place at a time when the Arab Regime has been affected, as a direct result to the crack in the Egyptian-Arab relations resulting from disparities with Israel in matters relating to the settlement policies.
In pursuance to the Amman Summit held in 1980, that has adopted the principle of National Planning in directing and developing the Joint Arab Action. The Summit has also approved the documents relating to the strategy of the Joint Arab Economic Venture, the National Economic Action Charter, Draft Common Development Contract and the Unified Investment Agreement
This procedure has recurred following the Second Gulf Crisis. At a time when the First Summit Conference which was held in Cairo, after six years of the invasion date in 1966, has adopted a resolution implying the assignment of the Economic and Social Council to accelerate in establishing a vast Arab Free Zone area. Accordingly, the Council has actually laid down a ten year executive program to establish the zone, starting from 1/1/1998. Furthermore, the Amman Summit/2001- has been named by "The Economic Summit", being the First Periodical Summit held in accordance with the Cairo Summit resolution, adopted in 2000, which adopted the Egyptian initiative relating to holding the First Arab Economic Conference in November/2001, under the slogan of: "Promoting the Arab Economic Performance".
Legally:
The project relating to the performance of an "Arab Court of Justice", is a true expression of the eminent efforts exerted by the League of Arab States, to develop its institutions, on the legal level. However, in accordance with the above mentioned, the Arab League Charter stated the possibility of its amendment, in 3 cases, namely: One of these , The establishment of "the Arab Court of Justice", is of vital importance. It will be responsible to handle the shortage of the necessary means for the settlement of conflicts. In this context, the "Alexandria Summit" held in 1964, adopted a resolution stating the establishment of the Court. The Arab League Council decided after sixteen years and specifically, in 1980 to form a Committee, so as to lay down the Court's basic Statutes.
- The Court formation comprises seven closed-door elected judges, for a period of three years, liable to extension, while changing three of them to be chosen by lot, every three years.
- The Court is responsible to settle conflicts, referred to it by the concerned parties, or those, which are provided for, in bilateral or multilateral agreements, or the countries' declaration of the Court's custody to these conflicts, without any need for a special agreement.
- The Court passes over its judgement, in accordance with the Arab League Charter principles and by virtue of the international law rules, whereas the other sources will be taken care of, upon approval of the other parties.
- The machinery depends in its job performance on the principles of the Arab League Charter, joint Defence Treaty and the UN Charter.
However, Tunis has presented this project to the Arab League Council, session No. 104, that was held during the period 20-21/9/1995. In this context, it expressed the related suggestion that was adopted by the Arab Maghreb (North West African) countries. Thereupon, the Arab League Council has endorsed this project, on 21/9/1995, while authorizing a specialized Committee, to make its final drafting. However, under this drafting, the Committee decided the following:
- A central body will be formed to be a basic structure, responsible for steering the machinery of the expected conflicts. It will consist of five representatives of the Member States, on the level of Ministers of Foreign Affairs and the Arab League Secretary General; to be presided by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the country presiding the Arab League Council Ordinary Session.
- This machinery will assume the responsibility of quick intervention for the prevention of any disputes or conflicts between Arab countries. In a further stage, it will manage and settle these conflicts by using peaceful means. However, in case of being unable to attain the previous target, by using the Arab League's potentialities, it is then possible for this machinery to co-operate with the United Nations to encompass the conflict and supervise the peace process maintenance in reference to international legislation
Administratively:
The administrative development of the Arab League focuses on developing the status of the General Secretariat. It is however, noteworthy, that this structural or institutional dimension is totally related to the cause of Charter amendment, established as an important item in a number of Arab Summits' agenda, without meaning the conformity between both parties. For instance, the Rabat Summit has formed a quadrilateral Committee in 1974, authorizing it to prepare a study relating to the League development, to be presented to "the Eight Arab Summit Conference". Whereas it also asked the Tunis Summit held in 1979 to re-structure the Arab League, so as to effectively function and thus move steadily on sound new basis.
However, the Dar Al-Baidaa Summit held in 1989, has referred in its final communiqu? to the urgent need to develop the structural and administrative organization of the League of Arab States.
Finally, the Amman Summit held in 2001, has authorized the Secretary General, Mr. Amre Moussa "to undertake the necessary steps". It also suggested laying down the suitable forms necessary for the reformation of the financial, administrative organizational situations of the Arab League General Secretariat, for restructuring purposes, as well as for promoting its working performance techniques, while enabling it to acknowledge its national requirements and accompany the latest developments taking place on the regional and international arenas.
It goes without saying that developing the Arab League General Secretariat Body, for which the Secretary General is totally responsible and devoted, is not a personal request; but will rather be an instrument that will serve as an introduction to activate the General Secretariat's performance, for further vital duties, which it is expected to carry out. In future. What is more important, is that it is an indispensable basic step towards the development of the League of Arab States as an entity and as an organization that crystallizes the Arab Union. It is considered a step towards the reinforcement of the targeted aspiration and the expected objective, namely: the pivotal role played by the Secretary General, within the framework and along the history of the Arab League.
Structure:
The basic structure of the League of Arab States -as stated in its Charter- consists of 3 main departments, namely: "The League Council - Permanent Committees and the General Secretariat". Along with the other established bodies provided for "Joint Arab Defence Treaty", that was ratified in 1950. In other words, these bodies have been previously referred to and which have been established by virtue of resolutions issued by the League of Arab States Council, on the part of "The Exploitation of River Jordan and Tributaries Associations" - "IDCAS" and "The Arab Forestry Institute" etc?
Furthermore, the Arab League has established or promoted the establishment of specialized agencies aiming at gathering the economic and social activities to function on technical basis, as well as ridding it - in a way or another- from the political complications. Further to the Ministerial Councils, mainly concerned with health, tourism, and security.
However, in accordance with the statements, provided for in the Arab League Charter, reference will be made to the 3 basic bodies, as stated in the Arab League Charter, to be as follows:
The Arab League Council:
This Council is considered as the Supreme Authority functioning within the Arab League. It consists of all the Arab League Member States representatives, including the Palestine Liberation Organization. But however much are the number of representatives, yet still everyone of them will have to vote. While taking into account, that the Member States have the right in determining the level of representation, they prefer, which may be promoted to the level of Heads of States or may be less in degree. This, of course, will not change the Council's nature. However, in accordance with the Arab League Charter the Council will be endeavored to realize the following objectives, namely:
- Undertaking the necessary measures to set back the actual or expected aggression, that may befall any Member State.
- Peaceful settlement of conflicts, as for example mediation or arbitration.
- Laying down the basic internal statute of the Council, permanent Committees and the General Secretariat.
- Determining and adopting the Member States' quotas in the Arab League Budget.
- Appointing the Secretary General of the League of Arab States.
- Determining means of co-operation with International Organizations so as to maintain international peace and security.
- Carrying out the agreements ratified by the Member States, in various fields.
The Permanent Committees:
The Arab League Charter (Article 4) stipulates the formation of a number of permanent committees, concerned with all forms of co-operation between the Member States. These committees had to be increased in number and modernized, so as to keep pace with the new developments, occurring to the Arab-Arab relations, as was the case with the political Committee, emerging from the practical practice and was not a direct result as clearly stated in the Charter.
However, the representation policy designed for the permanent Committees, will be as follows: "each permanent Committee will be represented by one single representative having one single vote for each country, separately". Accordingly, the Council will appoint one Chairman for each committee for a period of two years, liable to extension. In this context, the committees' meetings will issue its resolutions, according to the Member States majority votes, while taking into account that the Committees, meetings will not materialize, except by the presence of the Member States majority. Furthermore, these committees will enjoy the right of forming sub-committees, to be concerned with specialized technical affairs. It will also have the right to recommend for calling upon the Arab League Member States, to pass over their experience to these committees vis-?-vis the adjustment of their performance and whenever needed.
In pursuance, reference can be made to its role in accomplishing various draft treaties, ratified by Member States which are part and parcel of it. This is a part from other treaties, namely: "joint Defence- Economic Co-operation - Arab Union - Criminals Delivery and the Protocol of treatment of Palestinians in Arab Countries".
General Secretariat:
The Arab League Charter (Article 12) organizes the status of the Arab League General Secretariat. It has been referred -in this respect- that it would consist of a Secretary General -Assistant Secretaries General with a 2/3 majority of votes and for a period of 5 years, to be renewed on regular basis.
However, upon the approval of the Council, the Secretary General will be responsible for the appointment of the Secretaries General and the principle employees in the League. Thereupon, the post of the Secretary General of the League of Arab States has been in successive rotation for 6 Secretaries, namely: Mr. Abdul Rahman Azzam, Mr. Mohamed Abdul Khalek Hassouna, Mr. Mohamed Riyad, Mr. Al-Shazly Al-Kaleiby, Dr. Esmat Abdul Magiud, and Mr. Amre Moussa, who has been appointed as Secretary General in 2001. The basic statute highlight the responsibility of the Secretary General to be defined as:
Political responsibilities
- The right to attend the Arab League Council, and take part in discussion of matters, presented to it.
- The right of the Arab League representation in international organizations.
- Calling upon the Arab League Council and its related permanent Committees, to hold meetings.
- The right of drawing the attention of the Council or the Arab League Member States, to any subject, which the Secretary General considers important.
- Preparing the Arab League Budget
- Determining the Convention dates of the Arab League Council Session.
- The right to speak on behalf of the Arab League, as well as present the necessary data to the public opinion.
- Follow-up of resolutions adopted by the Arab League Council and its Committees.
- The tight to present verbal or written reports or data relating to any subject discussed by the Council.
- Organizing the related secretarial work.
It is noteworthy that the political aspect relating to the Secretary General's activity, has greatly developed along with the large scale, multi-dimensions and spheres of activities practiced by the League of Arab States.
Specilaized Ministerial Councils
Specilaized ministerial councils are the following
- Council of Arab Ministers for Electricity
- Council of Arab Transportation Ministers
- Council of Arab Ministers for Health
- Council of Arab Ministers for Youth and Sports
- Council of Arab Housing and Constrcion Ministers
- Council of Arab Justice Ministers
- Council of Arab Ministers for Social Affairs
- Council of Arab Justice Ministers
- Council of Arab Ministers for Communicatios
- Council of Arab Ministers for Environmental Issues
- Council of Arab Ministers for Tourism
Arab Unions
Arab unions are the following
- General Arab Insurance Federation
- Arab Union Of Land Transport
- Arab Sea Ports Federation
- Arab Federation Of Chambers Of Shipping
- Arab Association of Medical & Drug Equipment Manufactures
- Arab Association of Fish Producers
- Arab Association of Cement and Construction Materials
- Arab Association of Leather Works
- Arab Association of Iron and Steel
- Arab Association of Railroad Authorities
- Arab Association of Food Industries
- Arab Association of Maritime and Port Authorities
- Arab Association of Chemical Furtlizer Producers
- Arab Association of Maritime Carriers
- Arab Association of Textile Industries
- Arab Ouer-Land Transport Association
- Arab Association of Engineering - Industries
- Arab Association of Printing and Paper Industries
- Arab Association of Air Transport
- Association of Arab International Airports

Role:
Along its very rich and successful history, the League of Arab States was able to play four vital key roles that could be briefly referred to, as follows:
Sharing the efforts exerted by the Arab countries to gain independence. Hence, emerged the role played by the Arab League, in this respect; as for example, in consolidating the liberation moves and efforts undertaken by countries, such as Algiers, Sultanate of Oman, South Yemen (before Yemen Unity) and the Sudan. Accordingly, such a vital role was the direct and main season for the enlarged scope of the Arab States Membership in the Arab League in comparison to the old Membership. It now comprises 22 Arab countries, whereas, the total number of signatory states to the Founding Charter, did not exceed 7 countries.
Representing the Arab countries in various arenas and international organizations, as for example the United Nations and its Specialized Organizations, as well as the Organization of African Unity (OAU). While -at the same time fostering bonds of co-opertation with the latter, with the purpose of forming a sector of common institutions such as: "The Arab Bank For Development in Africa" "The Arab Fund for Loans", a part from the important role played by the League of Arab States, as a basic party in the dialogue with Europe, during the Seventies.
Promoting the Arab-Arab co-operation between the group of specialized Organizations, formed on various levels, within and without the scope of the Arab League.
In this context, reference should be made to the Arab Organizations that have been established within the frame work of the League of Arab States. While taking into account that scope of activities has extended to focus on matters relating to manpower, economic and social development, scientific and cultural affairs, means of communication and information. However, some Organizations such as "The Arab Labor Organization" "The Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development" The Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALESCO)" "The Arab States Broadcasting Union (ASBU)" and "The Arab Permanent Telecommunication Committee and the permanent Arab Postal Committee working within the framework of "The Arab Telecommunication Council of Ministers (ATCM)" have developed the means of expressing all these interests and activities.
The League of Arab States has exerted remarkable identified efforts in regular and continuous coordination with its various affiliated bodies, so as to activate the Arab Trade Union Labor. This has motivated the rise of "Arab lawyers, doctors, journalists, juries and workers Unions etc?
. - Taking part in the Peaceful settlement of some Arab-Arab conflicts, as for example: the Egyptian -Sudanese conflict in 1958, the Moroccan - Algerian conflict in 1963 - the Yemeni- yemeni conflict in 1987.
It is quite remarkable that the Arab League's capacity, in this respect, was related to the conflicting parties' degree and acceptance to the role it is designed to play.
However, the importance of this point lies within the scope of the well known fact that the Arab League's authority does not boost that of the Member States. Yet, while speaking about the Kwaiti-Iraqi conflict 1961, the Arab League has formed a temporary security force. It has also developed the diplomacy of the Arab Summit Conference.











Chapter 17

Cooperation Council for the Arab States
of the Gulf

Introduction
On 25th May 1981, Their Majesties and Highnesses, the leaders of the United Arab Emirates, State of Bahrain, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Sultanate of Oman, State of Qatar and State of Kuwait met in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, where they reached a cooperative framework joining the six states to effect coordination, integration and inter-connection among the Member States in all fields in order to achieve unity, according to article 4 of the GCC Charter. Article 4 also emphasized the deepening and strengthening of relations, links and areas of cooperation among their citizens. The underpinnings which are clearly provided for in the preamble of the GCC Charter, confirm the special relations, common qualities and similar systems founded on the creed of Islam, faith in a common destiny and sharing one goal, and that the cooperation among these states would serve the sublime objectives of the Arab nation.
The decision was not a product of the moment but an institutional embodiment of a historical, social and cultural reality. Deep religious and cultural ties link the six states, and strong kin relations prevail among their citizens. All these factors, enhanced by one geographical entity extending from sea to desert, have facilitated contacts and interaction among them, and created homogeneous values and characteristics.
Therefore, while, on one hand, the GCC is a continuation, evolution and institutionalisation of old prevailing realities, it is, on the other, a practical answer to the challenges of security and economic development in the area. It is also a fulfilment of the aspirations of its citizens towards some sort of Arab regional unity
The Concept and Foundations
The GCC Charter states that the basic objectives are to effect coordination, integration and inter-connection between Member States in all fields, strengthening ties between their peoples, formulating similar regulations in various fields such as economy, finance, trade, customs, tourism, legislation, administration, as well as fostering scientific and technical progress in industry, mining, agriculture, water and animal resources, establishing scientific research centres, setting up joint ventures, and encouraging cooperation of the private sector.
The Organizational Structure
Firstly: The Supreme Council is the highest authority of the GCC formed of the Heads of Member States. Its presidency rotates according to the Arabic alphabetical order of the names of Member States. It convenes one regular session every year. However, extraordinary sessions may be convened at the request of any Member State seconded by another. In 1998, during the 19th summit held in Abu Dhabi, the Supreme Council decided to hold a consultative meeting in between two summits every year. Meetings of the Supreme Council are considered valid if attended by two-thirds of the Member States, at which each has one vote. Resolutions on substantive matters are issued by unanimous approval of the members present, while a majority is enough to approve those of procedural nature.
The Consultative Commission: Formed of thirty GCC citizens (five from each Member States) chosen according to their experience and qualification for a period of three years. The Consultative Commission is charged with studying matters referred to it by the Supreme Council.
Commission for the Settlement of Disputes: Formed by the Supreme Council for every case on an ad-hoc basis in accordance with the nature of the dispute.
Secondly: The Ministerial Council is composed of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs or other ministers acting on their behalf. Presidency of the Ministerial Council is entrusted with the Member State that presided the last ordinary session of the Supreme Council, or when necessary, with the Member State that is next to preside the Supreme Council. The Ministerial Council convenes every three months, and may hold extraordinary meetings upon the request of one Member State seconded by another.A meeting is considered valid if attended by two-thirds of the Member States.
Among other jurisdictions, the Ministerial Council is authorised to propose policies, lay out recommendations, and encourage and coordinate the already existing activities in all fields. Resolutions adopted by other ministerial committees are referred to the Ministerial Council, which in turn would refer the relevant matters, along with appropriate recommendations, to the Supreme Council for approval. The Ministerial Council is also charged with arranging the Supreme Council meetings and preparing their agenda. Procedures of voting are similar to those applicable at the Supreme Council.
Thirdly: The Secretariat-General is charged, among other functions, with preparing studies related to cooperation, co-ordination, and integrated plans and programmes for joint work. It is also entrusted with the preparation of periodic reports on the work of the GCC, follow up implementation of the resolutions, prepare reports and studies when requested by the Supreme Council or the Ministerial Council. The Secretariat also makes preparation for meetings and prepare the agendas and draft resolutions for the Ministerial Council.
The Organizational body of the Secretariat-General is comprised of the following:
- A Secretary-General appointed by the Supreme Council for a period of three years renewable only once.
- Three Assistant Secretaries-General for political, economic and military affairs, as well as the head of the GCC delegation to Brussels, who are appointed by the Ministerial Council for three renewable years, upon nomination of the Secretary-General.
- Directors-general of the Secretariat-General sectors as well as other staff that are appointed by the Secretary-General.
The administrative structure of the Secretariat General consists of a number of sectors: Political Affairs, Economic Affairs, Military Affairs, Human and Environment Affairs, Legal Affairs, Office of the Secretary-General, Finance and Administrative Affairs, Patent Bureau, Administrative Development Unit, Internal Auditing Unit, and Information Centre, in addition to the GCC Delegation in Brussels and the Telecommunications Bureau in Bahrain.
Areas of Cooperation
ForeignPolicy
Coordination of foreign policy is an important aspect of cooperation within the GCC. The preamble of the GCC Charter provides that "Having the conviction that coordination, cooperation and integration between them serve the sublime objectives of the Arab Nation; … and in order to channel their efforts to reinforce and serve Arab and Islamic causes, the Member States agreed to establish the Gulf Cooperation Council". The Charter also states that the Supreme Council is the authority entitled to "approve the bases for dealing with other states and international organisations."
The GCC provides a number of instruments and channels of consultation and coordination of external policies at various levels, such as GCC summits and periodic Ministerial Council meetings, as well as meetings held on the margin of Arab and international gatherings, meetings of GCC representatives abroad, international conferences, in addition to other multilateral and bilateral channels.
Many factors have contributed to facilitate and further coordination and unification of GCC political stances, and helped formulate a common foreign policy towards many basic issues. These given factors are pivoted around the fact that the Member States of the GCC represent a socially and politically homogeneous structure, in principle and in perspective, and that they all share the same historical experience and are linked by one geographical area and common boundaries. These factors have also contributed to generate close, if not identical, perceptions of the outside world.
Furthermore, all this have been strengthened by the GCC Member States' adoption of sublime principles in dealing with international issues, based on the Charter of the United Nations, abiding by the rules of international conduct, respecting their Arab and international obligations, adhering to the principles of good neighbourliness, mutual respect of sovereignty, non-acquisition of others' land by force, respect of others' sovereignty over their resources, and observance of negotiation as an effective instrument for settlement of disputes, in line with the principles of peaceful co-existence as declared by the United Nations and confirmed by international laws.
In practice, the GCC has been able to achieve many successes in the field of foreign affairs. In brief, these successes are manifested in the formulation of a homogeneous Gulf stance towards political and security issues of interest at regional, Arab and international levels. During the few years after its establishment, the GCC has proved that it is able to act collectively and effectively through diplomatic channels, as during the invasion of the State of Kuwait. The GCC, also, has dealt, as one group, with the whole world by proposing identical points of view and negotiating the common interests of its members with other countries and international organisations.
Military Cooperation
Based on their conviction about the connected nature of their security and that an aggression against any one of them is deemed an aggression against all of them, cooperation in the military field has received the attention of the GCC states. Such conviction stems from the facts of geopolitics and faith in one destiny. Moreover, the security challenges in an unstable regional environment, like the Gulf area, imposes on the GCC States coordination of their policies and mobilization of their capabilities.
The GCC States seek to build up their defence forces according to a common conception. In this context, they have unified operational procedures, training, and military curricula. They also endeavour to accomplish compatibility of their military systems. Moreover the armed forces of the GCC States carry out joint military exercises with the Peninsula Shield Force, as well as joint air and sea manoeuvres.
Among the important achievements in the military field is the creation of the Peninsula Shield Force in 1982, which incorporates the credibility of the GCC will. Another important achievement was the resolution taken during Kuwait summit in 1997, which entailed to link the GCC Member States with a military communication network for early warning.
Security Cooperation
Security cooperation aims at enhancing coordination among the Member States to reach an integral state among their security institutions. In 1987, GCC States approved the Comprehensive Security Strategy as a general framework for security cooperation and coordination between them. Furthermore, GCC States concluded a security agreement in 1994.
Cooperation in security is multidimensional. It encompasses the fields of traffic, punishment and correction establishments, immigration and passports, airport security, anti-drug trafficking, anti-arms and explosives smuggling, border guards, coast guards, and civil defence. Specialised committees have been formed to strengthen cooperation in these fields. The most important achievement in this regard is the repeal of entry visas and residence permit requirements for the GCC citizens travelling to other GCC Member States.
In pursuance of approximating and unifying procedures and systems, GCC Member States approved a number of unified systems and rules regarding traffic, civil defence, anti-drug trafficking, arms and explosives, punishment and correction establishments, naturalization, and border and coast guards.
Legal Cooperation
In order to effect one of the most important goals provided for in the GCC Charter, GCC Member States have sought to lessen differences between their regulations and laws paving the way towards total unification. To that end, and since 1982, they have agreed that Islamic Sharia is the only source for legislations and jurisprudence in Member States. They have also worked to consolidate relations between their legislative institutions and deepen links between their judicial bodies.
In 1995, the GCC approved an agreement on the execution of judgements, appointments of attorneys, and serving of legal notices. In 1996, Muscat Instrument for a Unified Personal Law for the GCC was ratified. Kuwait Instrument for the Unified Civil Law and Doha Instrument of the Unified Penal Code were both ratified in 1997.
Economic Cooperation
General Framework:
Economic cooperation is considered as one of the basic pillars of joint work in the GCC. The broad goal is to move from cooperation and coordination to advanced stages of economic integration. In an endeavour to fulfil this goal, the GCC States laid down a comprehensive framework for economic cooperation. Such approach is manifested in the Unified Economic Agreement, which was ratified in 1981. In 1983, the GCC Member States set up a free trade zone, according to which the goods of national origin have become exempted of customs tariffs. This is the first stage in the process of economic integration.
GCC States are now on the threshold of setting up a customs union. Riyadh summit in 1999 approved a timetable to set up such union effective March 2005. Although the customs union represents the second stage of economic integration, however, the GCC has already advanced in great strides in the fulfilment of the third stage, which is the initiation of a Gulf Common Market. Such a goal entails the free movement of goods and abolishing of barriers to the movement of elements of production, especially people and capital.
The resolutions of fulfilment of Gulf economic citizenship are major steps in the way towards the common market, and constitute a considerable part of the achievements attained within the objectives of the Unified Economic Agreement. The Unified Economic Agreement stipulates equal treatment of GCC citizens in respect of freedom of movement, work, residence, engaging in economic activities, movement of capital, and ownership of real estate. Some of the achievements that have been realised include practice of retail and wholesale trade, ownership of shares and real estates, engaging in different professions and economic activities such as agriculture
industry, contracting, animal resources, establishment of hotels and restaurants, establishment of training centres, and obtaining loans from industry development funds and banks in the GCC States. Such implementations have paved the way for setting up the Gulf Common Market.
In addition, GCC States have made good progress in the sphere of unifying their economic policies. Indeed, a number of instruments relevant to the objectives and policies of the development plans have been ratified, as well as Joint Agricultural Policy, Unified Industrial Development Strategy, the General Framework of the GCC Population Strategy, and the Long-Term Comprehensive Development Strategy 2000-2025. With respect to linking GCC infrastructures, the Member States seek to accomplish the first phase of linking high voltage electricity grids. They also endeavour to complete the direct land route, the network of communications, and the Gulf network of ATM. The Unified Economic Agreement stresses the establishment of GCC joint projects in industry, agriculture and services, using public, private or mixed capital, in order to achieve economic integration with productive interface, and common development on sound economic bases. The Unified Economic Agreement also encourage the private sector to set up joint projects linking the economic interests of the citizens in all fields. Within this framework, a number of joint projects in industry, insurance, airline services, animal and fisheries were set up. In the field of joint institutions, the GCC set up the Gulf Investment Corporation based in Kuwait with a capital of US$2.1 billion, Standardization and Metrology Organisation for GCC in Riyadh, Technical Telecommunication Bureau in Bahrain, Commercial Arbitration Centre for GCC in Bahrain, Regional Committee for Electrical Energy Systems registered in Qatar, and Electricity Grids Linking Commission based in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. In the field of approximation and unification of procedures and regulations, GCC Member States approved a long list of obligatory and guiding rules in all spheres such as agriculture, water resources, ports, oil, agencies and trademarks, patents, foreign investments, practice of auditing and accountancy, insurance, telecommunications, and the encouragement of joint ventures. In the domain of developing collective positions and unified representation, GCC Member States coordinate their trade policies and relations with other economic blocks in order to create and guarantee equal bases and conditions in trade relations. In an endeavour to attain that objective, as provided for in the Unified Economic Agreement, the GCC launched negotiations with major trading partners and came to sign the Cooperation Agreement between GCC Member States and the European Economic Community in 1988. At present, negotiations are ongoing with the European Union to reach a free trade agreement. Moreover, the GCC is involved in an economic dialogue with the United States of America.
Industrial Cooperation
GCC States coordinate their industrial activities by laying down proper policies and suggesting means that would lead to effect industrialization of the Member States on an integral basis. This is achieved by unifying their industrial regulations and legislations, and distributing industries all over the Member States by encouraging the establishment of basic projects according to the comparative economic advantages. In working out to fulfil this objective, the GCC States ratified the Unified Industrial Development Strategy aiming at the realization of an industrial development based on complementary bases, as well as increasing the contribution of the industrial sector in the gross national product.
In an effort to support these objectives, the Unified Economic Agreement exempted all industrial products of GCC national origin from customs duties and other similar charges.
Commercial Cooperation
The objectives of commercial cooperation, in short, are to abolish customs barriers among GCC States and exempt national products from customs duties. Other major objectives include unification of customs tariffs, and to coordinate export and import policies and create a collective negotiating position.
Pursuant to these objectives, the GCC Member States set up a free trade zone among them since 1983. They are now close to entering the stage of a customs union. In 1999, a timetable to establish a customs union between them by March 2005 was approved. The GCC States have become a collective negotiation force either in their endeavour to liberalise trade with the European Union, or in coordinating their export/import policies.
The GCC promotes cooperation among Members States by laying down plans, programmes and projects that would ultimately realise their commercial strategy and encourage cooperation between their private sectors through the Union of Gulf Chambers of Commerce. The GCC also unified a number of trade regulations such as the Unified Guiding Regulation of Commercial Agencies, the Model Regulation of Trade Marks, the Unified Law of Commerce, the Unified Commercial Registry Law, and the Unified Law of Customs.
Another major achievement in this connection is the resolution permitting import and export of GCC national products without a local agent. GCC citizens are also permitted to practice retail and wholesale trade in any Member State.
Cooperation in the field of Oil and Gas
Having reserves of 45% and 14% of the total world reserves of oil and gas, respectively, cooperation in this field has been accorded the consideration it is due. The objectives are to coordinate policies at all stages of oil industry and to adopt a unified oil policy and position in the international markets. Moreover, measures are taken to avoid harmful competition, achieve maximum return, and secure the stability of these markets.
In 1987, the Supreme Council approved the Regulation of Oil Lending between the Member States. It aims at consolidating with any Member State that may suffer from a break down of oil producing or transporting installations that prevent it from meeting its obligations towards other parties for a period exceeding one month, with the rate of damage reaching 30% of the quantity of oil planned to be exported by the concerned Member State. In 1988, the Supreme Council also approved the Regional Emergency Plan of Petroleum Products, which aims at assisting any Member State encountering shortage in petrochemicals.
Cooperation in Electricity and Water
The Unified Economic Agreement asserts that Member States shall coordinate and establish infrastructure projects, including power stations and water desalination plants, in order to attain joint economic development and link the existing economic activities. Linking of high voltage electricity grids is considered one of the most important projects of linking infrastructures in GCC Member States. The Member States work to implement the first stage of the project in accordance with the resolution taken in Kuwait Summit in 1997. The first stage covers the State of Bahrain, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the State of Qatar, and the State of Kuwait. Besides, cooperation in this vital field includes rationalization of electric energy and water consumption, unification of electricity and water standards and specifications, operation and maintenance, training, and exchange of information.
Cooperation in Finance and Monetary Affairs
In the field of finance and monetary cooperation, the GCC aims at coordinating policies related to investment in order to reach a common investment policy that would direct domestic and foreign investments to meet the aspirations of the citizens of the GCC in development and progress. It is also designed to unify banking and monetary regulations and laws, as well as increase coordination between monetary agencies and central banks, including the initiation of one currency in order to further economic integration.
A major accomplishment in this regard is the resolution taken by Kuwait Summit 1997, which permits national banks to open branches in GCC Member States. The resolution is intended to develop the banking sector and increase its competitiveness, both regionally and internationally. The GCC also established the Gulf Network of the National ATM Networks, and approved the Centrality of Risks Law, the Efficiency of Capital and Risks of Assets Law, and the Credit Concentration in GCC Banks Law. In order to effect unified representation, the GCC Member States agreed to collectively participate in the meetings of Basel Committee and international conferences of banks, as well as to coordinate over the annual meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. In the field of investment, the GCC established the Gulf Investment Corporation, based in Kuwait, in 1982. The objective is to support and develop GCC economic and finance resources. However, with respect to approximating and unifying procedural systems and laws, GCC Member States endorsed the Model Regulation for the Promotion of Foreign Investment in the GCC. Cooperation in Agriculture and Water GCC States work to unify their policies, systems and laws, as well as to establish joint projects in the fields of agriculture, fisheries, animal-stock and water resources. They endeavour to accomplish food security by taking the optimum benefit of the available natural resources. The GCC ratified the Common Agricultural Policy, in addition to a number of other regulations related to preserving water resources, exploitation and protection of fishery resources, agricultural quarantine, veterinarian quarantine, fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides, registration of medicines, veterinarian medications, seeds, seedlings, and forests and pastures.
Cooperation in Transportation and Communication
Cooperation in this field includes marine, land and air transportation and communication. GCC States also coordinate in setting up infrastructure projects, such as seaports, airports, and highways along with fostering those establishments that already exist in the Member States. Joint work in this area also covers coordination of air navigation policies and air transport at various levels.
GCC States agreed to accord passenger and cargo means of transportation belonging to citizens of any Member State, transiting or entering its territories, the same treatment accorded to means of passenger and cargo transportation belonging to their own citizens, including exemption from all duties and taxes. The GCC States also agreed to allow steamers, ships and boats and their cargos belonging to any Member State to freely use the various port facilities and grant them the same treatment and privileges granted to their own similar means. National carriers (national airlines) are also permitted to sell directly in the Member States without the need for general agents or local sponsors.
Cooperation in the field of planning and development
The Unified Economic Agreement stresses achieving coordination and harmonization with respect to the development plans of the Member States, with a view to attaining economic integration among them.
In order to accomplish this objective, GCC States work to lay down strategies and mechanisms to enhance economic and social integration among them, make development plans at regional level, link infrastructures, increase the private sector's contribution to economic development, as well as transfer and domesticate technology.
In an endeavour to effect equilibrium on the structure of population and labour force, the GCC approved, in 1998, the General Framework of Population Strategy. In the same year, the GCC also approved the Long-Term Comprehensive Development Strategy 2000-2025, which aims at achieving a sustainable and integral development at all levels in the Member States and coordinating the national development plans.
Cooperation in the field of science and technology
The GCC States stress the importance of cooperation in this field. The Charter stipulates that one of the basic objectives is to prompt scientific and technical progress in the fields of industry, mining, agriculture, water and animal resources, as well as establishment of scientific research centres.
The Unified Economic Agreement makes clear that the objective behind such cooperation is to achieve a genuine local base founded on support and encouragement of research, applied sciences, and technology. Moreover, it refers to adapting imported technology to meet the needs of the region and the objectives of progress and development. The Unified Economic Agreement also indicates that the objectives of joint work in this sphere is to establish procedures, make arrangements and lay down terms for the transference of technology, as well as to conclude joint agreements with foreign governments and scientific or commercial organisations.
To this effect, GCC States work to coordinate the policies and programmes of scientific and technical research and establish joint programmes and centres covering the various scientific and technical spheres. In this respect, a patent regulation was ratified and the GCC Patent Office was established. Cooperation in the field of human resources The joint work in this field aims at laying down plans, programmes, and projects at national and regional levels in order to optimise the utilization of available human resources through nationalisation of jobs in the public sector, replacement of non-national labour force in the private sector, development of public administration, training and development of labour force, and promotion of relevant rules and laws. The GCC States also coordinate their positions towards various issues of civil service and labour in relevant international gatherings. One of the remarkable achievements in this field is the resolution taken by the Supreme Council in 1993, regarding extending equal treatment to the citizens of the GCC Member States employed in the private sector in any Member State. In 1995, the Supreme Council issued another resolution directed at facilitating the employment and movement of national labour force all over GCC Member States. Policies, plans, and procedures were also adopted to ease employment of national labour force and to curb employment of non-nationals. The GCC ratified a number of unifying regulations regarding civil service and labour affairs, such as the Model Regulation of Civil Service, the Directory for Expatriate Recruitment (refer to: 'Executive Bureau of the Ministers of Labour and Social Affairs Council of the GCC'). Cultural Cooperation The GCC seek to uplift joint cultural activities, as well as in every Member State, and respond collectively to cultural developments in the world. In recent years, with rapid cultural globalisation due to progress in telecommunication technology, there has been a significant flow of information from advanced countries to the developing countries. The need has become more pressing for joining efforts to tackle such mounting cultural influx, useful and harmful. In fulfilment of GCC objectives in this field, and in order to face the challenges of all forms, the Supreme Council during its 8th session held in 1987, approved the General Cultural Development Plan, the main aim of which is to convert the fragmented status of cultural activities into an integral whole. Moreover, a number of regulations were approved such as the Unified Regulation of Copyright, and the Unified Agreement between GCC Member States and Foreign Expeditions Working in the field of Archaeological Excavation to protect literary and artistic rights, as well as to maintain the ancient monuments of the Member States.
Cooperation in the field of Health
GCC States work to strengthen cooperation in the field of health by adopting joint projects, holding meetings and symposiums, and carrying out researches and studies. According to the Supreme Council resolutions taken in 1988, GCC citizens, residents and visitors, are entitled to enjoy the facilities rendered by health centres, clinics, and public hospitals in any Member State. Since 1994, citizens of the GCC, natural or legal, have been allowed to take on business activities in the field of health, including private hospitals, private infirmaries, treatment of the disabled, sports medicine, psychiatry, and medical labs. They have also been permitted to practise medicine and pharmacology all over the Member States.
Cooperation in Educatio
Cooperation in education aims at achieving coordination and integration, as well as making the best use of available capacities and resources through laying down plans, designing policies, and adopting joint programmes and projects. To realise these ends, GCC States have worked to unify the objectives of education. They began by unifying the curricula, particularly in the fields of mathematics and science. Considerable strides were actually made in this direction. Through the educational process, GCC States could establish close and intimate relations among their citizens. They have strengthened the affiliation of the GCC students by educating them about their common heritage, in addition to implementing common topics in the Arabic language and social sciences textbooks at all educational stages. In support of educational cooperation, the GCC Member States established the Arab Bureau of Education for the Gulf States based in Riyadh, and the Arab Centre for Educational Research of the Gulf States, based in Kuwait.
In 1985, GCC Member States endorsed a general framework for the joint educational work as represented by the document on Goals and Means to Realize the Role of Education in Achieving Development and Integration in the GCC. During the Abu Dhabi Summit in 1998, the GCC adopted a resolution towards developing the curriculum and promoting their role to fulfil integration and to meet the developmental needs of the Member States.
In order to achieve educational equality for all citizens, the GCC approved equal opportunities to students of the Member States in public, as well as higher education institutions, provided that priority resides with the students of the concerned Member State. Such equality includes fees, grants, medical care, and accommodation. The Supreme Council also approved the equalization of certificates and other educational documents issued by any Member State to those issued by other Member States. In addition, the Supreme Council allowed the citizens of any Member State to exercise business activities in the various fields of education, such as establishment of private schools, nursery schools, kindergartens, polyglots, computer training centres, and management. With respect to approximating legislations and regulations in higher education, GCC approved the criteria for contracting faculty at universities and other higher education institutions. Moreover, two bylaws regulating the exchange of faculty and university students were ratified.
Cooperation in the social field
Cooperation in the social field aims at deepening social interconnection among citizens, and promoting various social services in the Member States such as social care, social security, social aid and social development in order to design a comprehensive social strategy for all the GCC.
Due to the importance attached to this field, GCC Member States established the Executive Bureau of the Ministers of Labour and Social Affairs Council as a technical commission specialised in labour and social affairs. Other coordination committees were set up such as coordination committee for handling the affairs of the handicapped, and childhood coordination committee.
To further joint work in this field, GCC Member States have begun to approximate their social security and social aid regulations and laws, as a preparation to lay down a unified model legislation for rehabilitation and employment of the handicapped, as well as studying the actual position of childhood and how to promote the quality of the services rendered to it.
Environmental Cooperation
In view of the common developmental and environmental problems and conditions in GCC States, as a result of geographic proximity and similar level of development, the GCC adopted, in 1985, a strategic framework for environmental work at local and regional levels under the title of "General Policies and Principles for Environment Protection". It aims at formulating proper scientific formula to protect the environment and maintain the natural resources in a way that complies with the goals of comprehensive development and realizes the optimum benefit of available human and natural potentials of the Member States.
Moreover, GCC States act to unify all regulations, laws, and legislations that deal with the various aspects of the environment. These regulations, laws, and legislations represent the minimum requirements to enact national legislations. Within this framework, the GCC States ratified a number of regulations such as the Unified Regulation for Protection and Development of Wildlife, the GCC Environment Impact Assessment Regulation, the General Regulation of the Environment, the Unified Regulation for Handling Radioactive Materials, the Unified Regulation for Waste Recycling, and the Procedures of Transferring Hazardous Waste Through GCC Borders.
Cooperation in the field of Youth, Sports and Scouts
Youth, sports, and scouts activities are important in the incarnation of the spirit of collective work. They serve to realize common participations that implant citizenship and consciousness, as well as release the creative mental capacities towards a better future, as sought for by the GCC.
In pursuance of achieving their objectives in this field, the GCC Member States approved in 1983 a framework for youth and sport joint work. The framework outlines the principles, bases, and starting points that govern the goals of youth and sport joint activities. Another framework for scouts' joint activities, stating the common bases of the relationship between the scout societies in the GCC Member States, was also approved.
In an endeavour to realize equality in this field, the GCC States issued a resolution regarding equal treatment of all GCC citizens in benefiting from youth and sports facilities, such as sports centres and hospitals, and participation in friendly competitions that comply with international regulations and bylaws. Natural and legal citizens of the GCC are also allowed to practice business in the field of sport medicine.
Cooperation in the field of Information and Media
Media cooperation aims at unifying the information policies of the GCC States, in order to achieve a unified formula that takes into consideration the basic objectives of the GCC. The joint work in this field includes cooperation of broadcasts, TV stations, press, news agencies, and publishing. Through strengthening coordination and interconnection of information institutions, the GCC seeks to make possible for these institutions to accomplish their objectives toward the common well being of the citizens and the objectives of the GCC in general.
Moreover, in 1986, the GCC approved the Media Code of Ethics, which asserts that the media of the Member States should seek objectivity in their activities of publishing and broadcasting. The Protocol also rejects agitating acts and personal defamation. Moreover, it provides support to the issues of development in the GCC.
In order to coordinate their activities abroad and effect that coordination between their information institutions and external information bodies, the GCC Member States approved the Directives on Information Work Abroad.










Part 8
Various criteria
Chapter 18
Commonwealth of Nations

Introduction
Commonwealth of Nations, worldwide association of nations and their dependencies, whose members share a common commitment to promoting human rights, democracy, and economic development. All members accept the British monarch as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth. All but one, Mozambique, were once associated in some constitutional way with either the former British Empire or with another member country. The association was formerly known as the British Commonwealth of Nations, but today is referred to simply as the Commonwealth.
About 1.7 billion people live in the 54 independent nations and the more than 20 dependencies that make up the Commonwealth. Commonwealth members share many customs and traditions as a result of their association with Britain. Many have parliamentary systems of government on the British model, and their judicial and educational institutions are often similar to those in Britain. English is an official language of many members of the Commonwealth. Since 1977 the second Monday in March has been celebrated as Commonwealth Day; on that day the British monarch, as the head of the Commonwealth, presents an annual message to all member countries.
Development of the Commonwealth
Almost all members of the Commonwealth were once ruled by Britain as part of the British Empire. Some of them, such as Australia and Canada, were largely settled by British people. Others, such as India and Nigeria, were areas where British administrators governed a large non-British population.
During the first half of the 19th century the British government granted settlers of European origin in the colonies of Canada and Australia some self-government. At first, self-government was limited to local affairs, but it was gradually extended. In the 19th and early 20th centuries a number of areas under British control gained almost full independence and became known as dominions, rather than colonies. These included the Irish Free State, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. In 1926 dominions became defined as free and equal countries within the British Empire. The Statute of Westminster, enacted by the British Parliament in 1931, officially proclaimed the Commonwealth a free association of self-governing dominions united by a common allegiance to the Crown. As such, Commonwealth members were entitled to join international organizations as independent nations.
In 1949 Commonwealth prime ministers issued the London Declaration. The declaration changed membership in the Commonwealth from one based on common allegiance to the British Crown to one in which members agreed to recognize the British monarch as a symbol of their association, and thus head of the Commonwealth. Commonwealth nations were no longer required to recognize the Crown as their head of state. India became the first republican member with its own president as head of state. Today the British monarch is considered the head of state in only 16 Commonwealth countries, which are now formally called realms. Realms include Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The other members recognize the Crown only as head of the Commonwealth.
During the decades following the London Declaration, many of Britain’s colonies and dependencies in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific gained their independence and joined the Commonwealth, although some Commonwealth members have also withdrawn. Ireland left the Commonwealth in 1949. South Africa withdrew in 1961 after many Commonwealth members condemned its policies of apartheid (racial separation) and white supremacy. South Africa rejoined the Commonwealth in 1994 after apartheid ended. Fiji lost its membership in 1987 when a military coup took over its government, but its membership was reinstated in 1997 after the country adopted a new constitution more in line with Commonwealth principles.
Organization of the commonwealth
Citizenship
Before World War II (1939-1945), in theory, all the people of the Commonwealth had a common nationality as British subjects. In practice, however, most Commonwealth countries had immigration policies that restricted the admission of British subjects from other parts of the Commonwealth. For example, in Canada and Australia, where most of the inhabitants are of European descent, the immigration of people from African and Asian Commonwealth countries was forbidden or limited. In 1946 Canada became the first Commonwealth country to legally distinguish between its own citizens and other British subjects. Although all Canadian citizens were British subjects, all British subjects were not Canadian citizens. Under a law passed in 1977 Canadians became “citizens of the Commonwealth” instead of British subjects. Today the people of independent Commonwealth countries are citizens of their own country first and Commonwealth citizens second.
Types of membership
The Commonwealth consists of 54 independent nations, their dependencies, and two special members—the independent island nations of Nauru and Tuvalu. As special members, Nauru and Tuvalu contribute to the organization’s budget on a voluntary basis and receive aid from the Commonwealth, but do not participate in the meetings attended by heads of governments. Only independent nations can be considered full members; they are all fully sovereign and in no way subordinate to Britain. Dependencies of Commonwealth nations are also included in the Commonwealth, although not as full members, and can participate in many Commonwealth activities.
C Administration
The Commonwealth is a flexible and often informal association. Its main function is to encourage communication and cooperation among its diverse members, with their different needs and concerns. In 1965 the Commonwealth Secretariat was established in London to serve as a clearinghouse for the exchange of information. The Secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth secretary general and is responsible for carrying out programs formulated during the various meetings. The secretary general is elected by the Commonwealth heads of government from among the many Commonwealth diplomats and ministers. The Commonwealth Foundation provides financial and other support to professional associations and nongovernment organizations, enabling these groups to travel to other Commonwealth countries to work together. The Commonwealth Games, established in 1930 as the British Empire Games, bring together athletes from nations around the world every four years.
The heads of Commonwealth governments meet to discuss common problems every two years at Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGM). In addition, ministers and experts in education, health, finance, science, law, women’s issues, youth affairs, and various technical fields meet frequently to consult and act on important issues.
Trade and economic development
For many years economic relations formed a major link among Commonwealth countries. Patterns of trade established during the British Empire survived even after most dependencies became independent, and some of the old economic ties were preserved under a system of mutual tariff preferences set up in 1932. The system benefited the less-developed members by reducing or eliminating British duties on certain exports, mainly foodstuffs. In return, these countries favored Britain in their imports of certain manufactured goods. The importance of this tariff system declined in the 1960s as Britain increased its trade with other developed nations, especially in Europe. Other Commonwealth nations also diversified their economies and found new trading partners outside the Commonwealth. In 1973 Britain entered the European Economic Community, now the European Union (EU), and adopted its tariffs, which changed the established trading patterns among the Commonwealth nations.
The exchange of technical experts and advice, through the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, plays a significant role in Commonwealth affairs. Several of the more prosperous Commonwealth countries are members of the Colombo Plan, which provides funds for the economic development of southern Asia and parts of the Pacific. The larger Commonwealth nations are also helping the smaller, less-developed members become part of the global economy. To this end, they have established more liberal trade arrangements and organized regional private investment funds.
The Commonwealth world affairs
The Commonwealth does not act as a bloc in world affairs. In the United Nations, for example, some Commonwealth countries, such as Canada, usually support the United States and Britain, while others do not. Members of the Commonwealth are free to join other international or regional organizations. Britain and Canada, for example, are members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The African members have all joined the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and Guyana, Canada, and the Caribbean countries are members of the Organization of American States (OAS).
In 1971 the Commonwealth set forth the Singapore Declaration of shared principles that included commitments to peace, individual liberty, freedom from racism, international cooperation, and economic and social development. These commitments were reaffirmed in the Harare Declaration in 1991, which emphasized democracy and human rights. To deal with serious and persistent violations of these principles, the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG) was set up in 1995. It includes eight ministers who assess the extent of violations and recommend measures for collective action. The Commonwealth can enforce these principles with such punitive measures as economic sanctions or suspension from involvement in the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth’s efforts to promote democracy have encouraged a number of its members with military regimes to convert to civilian governments.
Members of the Commonwealth
Antigua and Barbuda - Australia - Bahamas - Bangladesh -Barbados - Belize - Botswana - Brunei - Cameroon - Canada - Cyprus - Dominica - Fiji - The Gambia - Ghana - Grenada - Guyana - India - Jamaica - Kenya - Kiribati- Lesotho - Malawi - Malaysia - Maldives - Malta - Mauritius | Mozambique- Namibia - Nauru - New Zealand - Nigeria - Pakistan - Papua New Guinea - Saint Kitts and Nevis - Saint Lucia - Saint Vincent and the Grenadines - Samoa - Seychelles - Sierra Leone - Singapore -| Solomon Islands - South Africa - Sri Lanka - Swaziland- Tanzania - Tonga - Trinidad and Tobago- Tuvalu - Uganda- United Kingdom - Vanuatu - Zambia.




























Chapter 19
La Francophonie
La Francophonie (occasionally in English Francophony, formally l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie), a French language term coined in 1880 by French geographer Onésime Reclus, brother of Elisée Reclus, to designate the community of people and countries using French, is an international organisation of French-speaking countries and governments. 49 states and governments are members of the organisation, four others (Albania, Andorra, Greece, Republic of Macedonia) are associate members, and ten additional states (Armenia, Austria, Croatia, Georgia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia) are invited observers of its Summits. French is at least a minor language in all its member states, and is in fact the sole major language of only a few. In addition to referring to the international organisation, La Francophonie is also used to refer to the French Sprachraum.
Several of the member states have a poor record when it comes to the protection of human rights and the practice of democracy. A proposed measure to sanction such countries was debated at least twice, but was not approved.
The modern Francophonie was created in 1970. Its motto is égalité, complémentarité, solidarité (equality, complementarity, and solidarity), harking of France's motto. Started as a small club of Northern French-speaking countries, it has since evolved into an important international organisation whose numerous branches cooperate with the organisation's member states in the fields of culture, science, economy, justice, and peace.
Today, the Francophonie is an important forum for discussions of world-wide cultural and linguistic diversity. Together with other international organisations such as the UNESCO, the Francophonie is concerned with the evolution of linguistic and cultural diversity in an era of the globalisation of trade. It is working closely with some other equivalent organisations in the Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking world (see the Latin Union and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries).
Structure
L'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie has an observer status at the UN General Assembly.
Summits
Summits of the Francophonie are held every two years, at which time the leaders of the member states have an opportunity to meet and develop strategies and goals for the organisation. Although it is thought to be incorrect, the original founder of La Francophonie was Samuel de Champlain.
Ministerial conferences
Permanent council
The Permanent Council of the Francophonie consists of Ambassadors of the member countries, and, like the ministers conferences, its main task is to plan future summits and also to supervise the implementation of summit decisions on a day-to-day basis.
Intergovernmental agency
The Intergovernmental Agency of the Francophonie is the main operator of the cultural, scientific, technical, economic and legal cooperation programs decided at the Summits. The Agency's headquarters are in Paris and it has three regional branches in Libreville, Gabon; Lomé, Togo; and Hanoi, Vietnam.
Members
Europe France Belgium only the French Community of Belgium Bulgaria Luxembourg Moldova Monaco Romania Switzerland.
Associate members: Albania Andorra Greece FYR Macedonia.
Observers: Austria Armenia Czech Republic Croatia Lithuania Hungary Poland Slovakia Slovenia Georgia.
North and South America Canada New Brunswick (participating government) Quebec (participating government) Ontario (observer, but may join in the future) Dominica Haiti Saint Lucia French dependencies: Martinique Guadeloupe French Guiana St. Pierre-et-Miquelon
Africa Benin Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Republic of the Congo Côte d'Ivoire Democratic Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Gabon Guinea Guinea-Bissau Madagascar Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Niger Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Togo Tunisia
Assia Cambodia Laos Lebanon Vietnam
Oceania Vanuatu
















Chapter 20
Non-Aligned Movement
NAM
The Non-Aligned Movement, or NAM, is an international organization of over 100 states which consider themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. NAM focuses on national struggles for independence, the eradication of poverty, economic development and opposing colonialism, imperialism, and neo-colonialism. They represent 55% of the planet's people and nearly two-thirds of the UN's members.
Important members include India, Egypt, South Africa and, for a time, the People's Republic of China. Brazil has never been a formal member of the movement, but the country shares many of the aims of NAM and frequently sends observers to NAM summits. While the organization was intended to be as close an alliance as NATO or the Warsaw Pact, it has little cohesion and many of its members were induced or unable to resist aligning with one or another of the great powers. For example, Cuba was closely aligned with the former Soviet Union during the Cold War era.
The Non-Aligned Movement has struggled to find relevance since the end of the Cold War. The successor states of Yugoslavia, a founding member, have expressed little interest in the NAM since the country's break-up, and in 2004, Slovenia, along with Malta and Cyprus, ceased to be a member of the NAM when it joined the European Union. Malta and Cyprus now have the status of observer.
The Origin of the Non-Aligned Movement
The term "Non-Alignment" itself was coined by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In this speech, Nehru described the five pillars to be used as a guide for Sino-Indian relations, which were first put forth by the contemporary Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai. Called Panchsheel, these principles would later serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement. The five principles were:
- Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty
- Mutual non-aggression
- Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs
- Equality and mutual benefit
- Peaceful co-existence
The origin of the Non-aligned movement can be traced to a conference hosted in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955. The world's "non-aligned" nations declared their desire not to become involved in the East-West ideological confrontation of the Cold War. Bandung marked a significant milestone for the development of NAM as a political movement.
However it was six years later in September of 1961, largely through the initiative of Josip Broz Tito, then-president of Yugoslavia, that the first official Non-Aligned Movement Summit was held. As well as Tito and Nehru, the other prominent world leaders instrumental in getting NAM off the ground were Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Sukarno of Indonesia.
NAM Summit meetings
Generally NAM summits take place every three years. Countries that have hosted NAM summits include Yugoslavia, Egypt, Zambia, Algeria, Sri Lanka, Cuba, India, Zimbabwe, Indonesia, Colombia, South Africa, and Malaysia.
The first summit was held at Belgrade in 1961. The summit saw representatives from 25 countries – eleven from both Asia and Africa along with Yugoslavia, Cuba, andCyprus.The next meeting was held in Cairo in 1964. It was attended by forty-six nations, with most of the new members being newly independent African states. Much of the meeting involved discussions about the Arab-Israeli conflict and the Indo-Pakistani Wars.The 1970 meeting in Lusaka was attended by fifty-four nations and was one of the most important with the movement forming a permanent organization to foster economic and political ties. Zambia's first president, Kenneth Kaunda, played a crucial role in these events.The 1973 meeting in Algiers saw the movement deal with new economic realities. The 1973 world oil shock had made some of its members vastly richer than the others. The end of the attachment of the U.S. currency to gold, and the dollar's subsequent devaluation, also removed one of the group's largest complaints.
The Non-Aligned Movement Members
Member countries: Afghanistan | Algeria | Angola | Bahamas | Bahrain | Bangladesh | Barbados | Belarus | Belize | Benin | Bhutan | Bolivia | Botswana | Brunei | Burkina Faso | Burundi | Cambodia | Cameroon | Cape Verde | Central African Republic | Chad | Chile | Colombia | Comoros | Congo | Côte d'Ivoire | Cuba | Democratic Republic of Congo | Djibouti | Dominican Republic | Ecuador | Egypt | Equatorial Guinea | Eritrea | Ethiopia | Gabon | Gambia | Ghana | Grenada | Guatemala | Guinea | Guinea-Bissau | Guyana | Honduras | India | Indonesia | Iran | Jamaica | Jordan | Kenya | Kuwait | Laos | Lebanon | Lesotho | Liberia | Libya | Madagascar | Malawi | Malaysia | Maldives | Mali | Mauritania | Mauritius | Mongolia | Morocco | Mozambique | Myanmar | Namibia | Nepal | Nicaragua | Niger | Nigeria | North Korea | Oman | Pakistan | Palestine | Panama | Papua New Guinea | Peru | Philippines | Qatar | Rwanda | Saint Lucia | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | São Tomé and Príncipe | Saudi Arabia | Senegal | Seychelles | Sierra Leone | Singapore | Somalia | South Africa | Sri Lanka | Sudan | Suriname | Swaziland | Syrian Arab Republic | Tanzania | Thailand | Timor-Leste | Togo | Trinidad and Tobago | Tunisia | Turkmenistan | Uganda | United Arab Emirates | Uzbekistan | Vanuatu | Venezuela | Vietnam | Yemen | Zambia | Zimbabwe
Observer countries: Antigua and Barbuda | Armenia | Azerbaijan | Brazil | People's Republic of China | Costa Rica | Croatia | Cyprus | Dominica | El Salvador | Kazakhstan | Kyrgyzstan | Mexico | Serbia and Montenegro | Ukraine | Uruguay
Observer organizations: African Union | League of Arab States | United Nations






Chapter 21
Organization of the Islamic Conference
(OIC)
The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) is an inter-governmental organization grouping fifty-six States. These States decided to pool their resources together, combine their efforts and speak with one voice to safeguard the interest and ensure the progress and well-being of their peoples and those of other Muslims in the world over.
The Organization was established in Rabat, Kingdom of Morocco, on 12 Rajab 1389H / 25 September 1969 when the First meeting of the leaders of the Islamic world was held in this city in the wake of the criminal arson perpetrated on 21 August 1969 by Zionist elements against Al-Aqsa Mosque, in occupied Jerusalem. It was indeed in order to defend the honour, dignity and faith of the Muslims, to face this bitter challenge launched in the holy city of Al-Quds so dear to them and against the Mosque of Al-Aqsa, the first Qibla and third holiest Shrine of Islam, that the leaders of the Muslim world, at their Summit in Rabat, seized that event - which brought about unanimous worldwide condemnation and reprobation - to think together of their common cause and muster the force required to overcome their differences, unite and lay the foundations of this large grouping of States, that is, the Organization of the Islamic Conference which they entrusted, in absolute priority, with liberating Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa from Zionist occupation.
Six months after that historical meeting, i.e. in Muharram 1390H (March 1970), the First Islamic Conference of Ministers of Foreign Affairs held in Jeddah set up a permanent General Secretariat, to ensure a liaison among Member States and charged it to coordinate their action. The Conference appointed its Secretary General and chose Jeddah as the Headquarters of the Organization, pending the liberation of Jerusalem, which would be the permanent Headquarters.
Two and a half years after Rabat, in Muharram 1392H /February 1972, the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, meeting in its Third Session, adopted the Charter of the Organization, whose purpose is to strengthen solidarity and cooperation among Islamic States in the political, economic, cultural, scientific and social fields.
Objectives
The objectives of the Islamic Conference are:
- to promote Islamic solidarity among Member States;
- to consolidate cooperation among Member States in the economic, social, cultural, scientific and other vital fields of activities, and to carry out consultations among Member States in international organizations;
- to endeavor to eliminate racial segregation, discrimination and to eradicate colonialism in all its forms;
- to take necessary measures to support international peace and security founded on justice;
- to coordinate efforts for the safeguarding of the Holy Places and support of the struggle of the people of Palestine, to help them regain their rights and liberate their land;
- to back the struggle of all Muslim people with a view to preserving their dignity, independence and national rights.
- to create a suitable atmosphere for the promotion of cooperation and understanding among Member States and other countries.
Principles
The principles of the Islamic Conference are:
- total equality between Member States;
- respect of the right of self-determination, and non-interference in the domestic affairs of Member States;
- respect of the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of each Member States;
- settlement of any conflict that may arise by peaceful means such as negotiation, mediation, reconciliation or arbitration;
- abstention from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity, national unity or political independence of any Member States.
Membership:
The Organization of the Islamic Conference is made up of the States which took part in the Conference of Kings and Heads of State and Government held in Rabat and the two Foreign Ministers' Conferences held in Jeddah and Karachi, and signatory to the Charter. Every Muslim State is eligible to join the Islamic Conference on submitting an application expressing its desire and preparedness to adopt this Charter. The application shall be deposited with the General Secretariat, to be brought before the Foreign Ministers' Conference at its first meeting after the submission of the application. Membership shall take effect as of the time of approval of the Conference by a two-third majority of the Conference members.
Withdrawal:
Any Member State may withdraw from the Islamic Conference by sending a written notification to the Secretariat General, to be communicated to all Member States. The State applying for withdrawal shall be bound by its obligations until the end of the fiscal year during which the application of withdrawal is submitted. It shall also settle any other financial dues to the Conference.
Finance:
- All expenses on the administration and activities of the Secretariat shall be borne by Member States proportionate to their national incomes.
- The Secretariat shall administer its financial affairs according to the rules of procedure approved by the Conference of Foreign Ministers.
- A Standing Financial Committee shall be set up by the Conference from the accredited representatives of the participating States, and shall meet at the Headquarters of the General Secretariat. This Committee shall in conjunction with the Secretary General, prepare and supervise the budget of the General Secretariat in accordance with the regulations approved by the Conference of Foreign Ministers
Conference bodies:
The Islamic Conference is made up of: The Conference of Kings and Heads of State and Government ,the Conference of Foreign Ministers, and the General Secretariat and Subsidiary Organs.
Conference of Kings and Heads of State:
The Conference of Kings and Heads of State and Government is the supreme authority in the Organization.
The Islamic Summit Conference convene periodically, once every three years.
It shall also be held whenever the interest of Muslim Nations warrants it, to consider matters of vital importance to the Muslims and coordinate the policy of the Organization accordingly.
Conference of Foreign Ministers:
Conference sessions:
- The Islamic Conference shall be convened once a year of whenever the need arises at the level of Ministers of Foreign Affairs or their officially accredited representatives. The sessions shall be held in any one of the Member States.
- An extraordinary session may be convened at the request of any Member State or at the request of the Secretary General, if approved by two-thirds of the Member States. The request may be circulated to all Member States in order to obtain the required approval;
- The Conference of Foreign Ministers has the right to recommend the convening of a Conference of Heads of State or Government. The approval can be obtained for such a Conference by circulating the request to all Member States.
The purposes of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers are :
- To consider the means of implementing the general policy of the Conference.
-To review progress in the implementation of resolutions adopted at previous sessions.
-To adopt resolutions on matters of common interest in accordance with the aims and objectives of the Conference set forth in this Charter.
- To discuss the report of the Financial Committee and approve the budget of the Secretariat General.
- To appoint the Secretary General.
- To appoint four Assistants to the Secretary General on recommendation of the Secretary General; (The post of a fourth Assistant Secretary General will be for the cause of Al-Quds Al-Sharif and Palestine), and In recommending his Assistants, the Secretary General shall duly take competence, integrity and duly take into consideration their dedication to the Charter's objectives as well as the principle of equitable geographical distribution.
- To fix the date and venue of the coming Conference of Foreign Ministers;
- To consider any issue affecting one or more of the Member States whenever a request to that effect is made with a view to taking appropriate measures in that respect
- Resolutions or recommendations of the Conference of Foreign Ministers shall be adopted by a two-third majority.
- Two-thirds of the Member States in any session of the Conference of Foreign Ministers shall constitute the quorum.
- The Conference of Foreign Ministers decides on the basic procedures which it follows and which could be good for the Conference of Kings and Heads of State and Government. It appoints a Chairman for each session. This procedure is also applied in subsidiary organs set up by the Conference of Kings and Heads of State and Government and also by the Conference of Foreign Ministers.
The General Secretariat:
The General Secretariat shall be headed by a Secretary General appointed by the Foreign Ministers Conference for a period of four years renewable once only.
The Secretary General shall appoint the staff of the General Secretariat from amongst nations of Member States, paying due regard to their competence and integrity, and in accordance with the principle of equitable geographical distribution.
In the performance of their duties, the Secretary General, his Assistants, and the staff of the General Secretariat, shall not seek or receive instructions from any government or authority other than the Conference. They shall refrain from taking any action that may be detrimental to their position as international officials responding only to the Conference. Member States undertake to respect this quality and the nature of their responsibilities, and shall not seek to influence them in any way in the discharge of their duties.
The Secretariat General shall work to promote communication among Member States and provide facilities for consultations and exchange of views as well as the dissemination of information that may have common significance to these States.
The headquarters of the Secretariat General shall be in Jeddah pending the liberation of "Baitul Maqdis" (Jerusalem).
The General Secretariat shall follow up the implementation of the resolutions and recommendations of the Conference and report back to the Conference. It shall also directly supply the Member States with working papers and memoranda through appropriate channels, within the framework of the resolutions and recommendations of the Conference.
The General Secretariat shall prepare the meetings of the Conference in close cooperation with the host states insofar as administrative and organizational matters are concerned.
Immunities and Privileges
In the light of the agreement on immunities and privileges to be approved by the Conference:
- The Conference shall enjoy, in the Member States, such legal capacity, immunities and privileges as may be necessary for the exercise of its functions and the fulfillment of its objectives.
- Representatives of Member States shall enjoy such immunities and privileges as may be necessary for the exercise of their functions related to the Conference; and The Staff of the Conference shall enjoy the immunities and privileges necessary for the performance of their duties as may be decided by the Conference.
SPECIALIZED BODIES
- Afghanistan Committee:
This Committee was established pursuant to resolution 19/11 –P adopted by the 11th Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, held in Islamabad, Pakistan, from 17 -21 May 1980.
Function: The Committee coordinates aids and assistance to mitigate the suffering of the Afghan people fighting to regain their fundamental rights. It is required to cooperate with the Secretary General of the OIC or his special representative in finding peaceful, just, lasting and comprehensive solution to the Afghan question.
Chairmanship: This Committee is chaired by the Secretary General of the OIC.
Membership: Membership of this committee is made up of four Member States as follows: Islamic Republic of Iran .Republic of Tunisia . Islamic Republic of Pakistan Republic of Guinea, and The Secretary General of the OIC.
Meeting: The Committee meets in New York on the fringes of the annual meeting of foreign ministers during the General Assembly of the United Nations.
- Islamic Committee for Solidarity with People of African Sahel
Establishment: This Committee was established pursuant to resolution 7/3-P (IS) adopted by the 3rd Islamic Summit Conference, held in Makkah al Mukarramah and Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, in January 1981.
Function: This Committee follows up the implementation of measures adopted within the framework of the programme of assistance to the countries of the Sahel, either in the form of urgent food aid or assistance in development projects. It also studies the best means to intensify the fight against drought and desertification; and offers forms of initiatives within the same framework and presents them to the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers.
Membership: Membership of the Committee is made up of 7 Member States, the Secretary General of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference and the representative of the head of international Committee on Combating Desertification in the Sahel. The 7 Member States are as follows: State of the United Arab Emirates. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia .Republic of Iran.State of Palestine . State of Kuwait .Malaysia . Kingdom of Morocco . State of Qatar
Chairmanship: The Committee has been under the chairmanship of the Foreign Minister of Qatar since the 9th Islamic Summit Conference held in Qatar.
Meetings:This Committee meets once every year on the fringes of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers.
3. Ministerial Committee of Eight on Philippines Muslims
Establishment :This ministerial Committee is charged with following up the question Muslims in Southern Philippines, pursuant to resolution 4/4 adopted by the 4th Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, held in Benghazi, Libya, from 24-26 March 1973.
Function: This Ministerial Committee together with the Government of Philippines examines the situation of Muslims in southern Philippines.
Membership: Membership of this Committee is made up of the Foreign Ministers of the following Eight Member States: Republic of Indonesia.People's Republic of Bangladesh. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia . Democratic Republic of Somalia. Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah. Republic of Senegal. .Sultanate of Brunei Malaysia .
Chairmanship: This Committee's meetings are chaired by the Foreign Minister of Indonesia; and the meetings are held on the fringes of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers and the Islamic Summit Conference, when conditions so warrant.
Committee of Six on Palestine
Establishment:The Committee of Six on Palestine was established pursuant to resolution 1/12-P adopted by the 12th Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, held in Baghdad, Republic of Iraq, from 1-5 may 1981.
Function: To follow up the implementation of sanctions decided by the OIC as well as the sanctions provided for in article 7 of the Charter of the United Nations against the Zionist entity for underestimating international legitimacy, for refusing to implement the resolutions of the United Nations, and for violating the principle of the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration on Human Rights.
Membership: Membership of this Committee is made up of the following 5 Member States:Islamic Republic of Pakistan .Republic of Senegal . Republic of Guinea . State of Palestine .Malaysia, and The Secretary General of the OIC.
Meetings:This Committee's meetings are held annually on the fringes of the annual meeting of the United Nations General Assembly.
Contact Group on Bosnia Herzegovina
Establishment: The Group was established on 24 May 1993 pursuant to the declaration of Member States of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference adopted at the United Nations on the position on Bosnia Herzegovina.
Function: The Group coordinates the activities of Member States on Bosnia Herzegovina.
Membership: Membership of the Group is made up of Nine Member States and the Secretary General of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, as follows:.Islamic Republic of Iran Islamic Republic of Pakistan .Republic of Turkey .Kingdom of Saudi Arabia .Republic of Senegal .Malaysia .Arab Republic of Egypt .Kingdom of Morocco .Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Chairmanship: The Group is chaired by Member States in succession.
MeetingThe Contact Group holds its meetings upon request from a Member State in the Group. The Group has held a number of meetings and created a fund to accelerate the return of refugees and displaced persons to Bosnia. The fund is headquartered in Sarajevo.
Contact Group on Jammu and Kashmir
Establishment: The Group was established on 3 October 1994 pursuant to resolution 3/EX7 adopted by the 7th Extraordinary Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, held at Islamabad in September 1994.
Function: The Group coordinates efforts of Member States to support the rights of the Jammu and Kashmir people to self determination in accordance with United Nations resolutions, and to safeguard the basic human rights of this people.
Members of the Group: Membership of the Group is made up of four Member States and the Secretary General of the OIC, as follows: Islamic Republic of Pakistan.Republic of Turkey. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia . Republic of Niger.
Chairmanship: The Group is chaired by the Secretary General of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference.
Meetings: Meetings of this Group are held regularly at the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York.
Sierra Leone Committee
Establishment: The Committee was established pursuant to resolution 51/27-P adopted by the 27th Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, between 24 – 27 Rabiul Awwal 1421H (27 – 30 June 2000).
Membership:Malaysia .Arab Republic of Egypt . State of Kuwait . Republic of Guinea . Kingdom of Saudi Arabia . Federal Republic of Nigeria . Islamic Republic of Iran .Republic of Sierra Leone
Contact Group on Somalia
Establishment: The Group was established pursuant to resolution 12/9 – P (IS) adopted by the Islamic Summit Conference, held in Doha, State of Qatar, from 12 – 13 November 2000.
Membership: State of Qatar (Chairman) .Brunei Darussalam .Malaysia . Islamic Republic of Pakistan . Islamic Republic of Iran . Republic of Turkey . State of the United Arab Emirates . Republic of Yemen . Djibouti . Republic of Sudan . Arab Republic of Egypt . Gabon . State of Kuwait . Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Committee on United Nations reform
The Committee is made up of permanent representatives of Member States to the Organization of the Islamic Conference in New York, and it's membership is open-ended.
Standing Committees
• Al-Quds (Jerusalem) Committee.
• Standing Committee on Information and Cultural Affairs (COMIAC).
• Standing Committee on Economic and Trade Cooperation (COMCEC).
• Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH).
• Islamic Committee for Economic, Cultural and Social Affairs.
• Permanent Finance Committee.
• Financial Control Organ.
Subsidiary Organs
• The Statistical, Economic, Social Research and Training Center for Islamic Countries, located in Ankara, Turkey.
• The Research Center for Islamic History, Art and Culture (IRCICA), located in Istanbul, Turkey.
• The Islamic University of Technology, located in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
• The Islamic Center for the Development of Trade, located in Casablanca, Morocco.
• The Islamic Fiqh Academy, located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
• The Executive Bureau of the Islamic Solidarity Fund and its Waqf, located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
• The Islamic University of Niger, located in Niamey, Niger.
• The Islamic University of Uganda, located in Mbale, Uganda.
Specialized Institutions
• The Islamic Development Bank (IDB), located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
• The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO), located in Rabat, Morocco.
• The Islamic States Broadcasting Organization (ISBO) and the International Islamic News Agency (IINA), located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Affiliated institutions
• Islamic Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ICCI), located in Karachi, Pakistan.
• Organization of Islamic Capitals and Cities (OICC), located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
• Sports Federation of Islamic Solidarity Games, located in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
• Islamic Committee of the International Crescent (ICIC), located in Benghazi, Libya.
• Islamic Shipowners Association (ISA), located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
• World Federation of International Arab-Islamic Schools, located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
• International Association of Islamic Banks (IAIB), located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Organization of the Islamic Conference
Afghanistan , Albania, Algeria , Azerbaijan , Bahrain, Bangladesh , Benin, Burkina Faso, Brunei, Cameroon, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti | Egypt , Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia , Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait , Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan , Lebanon, Libya, Maldives ,Malaysia, Mali, Mauritania , Morocco , Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan ,Palestine, Qatar ,Saudi Arabia ,Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Surinam , Syria , Tajikistan, Turkey, Tunisia, Togo | Turkmenistan, Uganda, Uzbekistan , United Arab Emirates , Yemen
Observer countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Central African Republic , Russia ,Thailand.
Observer Muslim organizations and communities: Moro, National Liberation Front, Turkish, Cypriot State.
Observer international organizations: Economic Cooperation Organization ,Organization of African Unity , League of Arab States, Non-Aligned Movement , United Nations.















Chapter22
Latin Union
Institutional Organization
The ALADI (Articles 28 and 29 of Montevideo Treaty 1980) has three political bodies: the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Conference of Evaluation and Convergence and the Committee of Representatives, as well as a technical body, the General Secretariat
Conference of Evaluation and Convergence
The Conference of Evaluation and Convergence (Articles 33, 34 and 43 of TM80) is responsible for the evaluation of the whole integration process, as well as for promoting the partial scope agreements' convergence and larger scope actions on economic integration, aiming at its progressive multilateralization.
It has the following powers:
- To examine the operation of the integration process in all its aspects and the convergence of partial scope agreements through their progressive multilateralization, as well as to recommend the Council the adoption of multilateral scope corrective measures;
- To promote actions of broader scope regarding economic integration;
- To periodically review the implementation of differential treatments, taking into account not only the evolution of the economic structure of the countries and consequently their degree of development, but also the effective use made by beneficiary countries of the applied differential treatment, as well as of the procedures aimed to improve the implementation of such treatments;
- To evaluate the results of the system in favour of countries at a relatively less advanced stage of economic development and adopt measures for its more effective application;
- To carry out multilateral negotiations to determine and deepen the regional tariff preference;
- To foster negotiation and conclusion of regional scope agreements, wherein all member countries participate, which refer to any matter pertaining to the present Treaty, as per precepts of article 6;
- To comply with all the tasks entrusted to it by the Council;
- To commend the Secretariat such studies as it deems convenient; and
- To adopt its own Rules of Procedure.
The Conference composed of Plenipotentiaries of member countries. It has a regular sessions every three years at the request of the Committee. It meets at any other time in extraordinary session, when convened by the latter to deal with questions of its specific competence. The Conference take its decisions with the presence of all member countries.
Article 43
The Council, the Conference and the Committee take their decisions by the affirmative vote of two thirds of the member countries. Decisions on the following matters excepted from this general rule shall be adopted by a two-thirds affirmative vote, provided there is no negative vote:
- Amendments or additions to the present Treaty;
- Adoption of decisions corresponding to the higher governing policy of the integration process;
- Adoption of decisions executing the results of multilateral negotiations to determine and deepen the regional tariff preference;
- Adoption of decisions leading to give partial scope agreements a multilateral regional level;
- Acceptance of accession of new member countries;
- Regulation of the Treaty provisions;
- Establishment of the percentages of member countries' contributions to the budget of the Association;
- Adoption of corrective measures arising from the evaluations of the progress achieved within the integration process;
- Authorization of a term of less than five years regarding obligations, in case of Treaty denouncement;
- Adoption of guide-lines to be followed by the Association bodies in their tasks; and
- Establishment of basic rules governing the relations of the Association with other regional associations, international organizations or agencies.
Abstention does not mean a negative vote. Absence at the time of voting shall be interpreted as abstention. The Council may eliminate subjects from this list of exceptions by the affirmative vote of two thirds of the member countries, provided there is no negative vote.
Council of Ministers
The Council of Ministers is the highest body of ALADI and its Regulation was approved by Resolution 1 of the Council of Ministers First Meeting, on November 16th 1983.
It is composed of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the member countries, or any other Minister or State Secretary in charge of integration, and takes the highest political decisions concerning the process of integration.
The Council of Ministers meet when convened by the Committee of Representatives and only makes decisions when all Member Countries are present
The Council is the supreme body of the Association and shall adopt whatever decisions may correspond to the higher governing policy of the economic integration process.
it has the following powers:
- To issue general rules aimed at a better compliance with the objectives of the Association, as well as at the harmonious development of the integration process;
- To examine the results of the tasks carried out by the Association;
- To adopt corrective measures of multilateral scope, following the recommendations adopted by the Conference as per terms of article 33, caption a) of the present Treaty;
- To establish the guide-lines to be followed by the other bodies of the Association in their tasks;
- To set the basic rules to govern the relations of the Association with other regional associations, international organizations or agencies;
- To review and update basic rules governing convergence and cooperation agreements with other developing countries and the respective areas of economic integration;
- To take cognizance of questions submitted by the other political bodies and decide upon them;
- To delegate upon the other political bodies the power to decide on specific matters aimed at a better compliance with the Association objectivesi) To accept accession of new member countries;
- To adopt amendments and additions to the Treaty as per precepts of article 61;
- To appoint the Secretary-General; and
- To adopt its own Rules of Procedure.
The Council composed of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the member countries. However, when in some countries the competence of integration matters is assigned to a Minister or Secretary of State other than the Minister of Foreign Affairs, member countries may be represented at the Council, with full powers, by the respective Minister or Secretary.
Committee of Representatives
he Committee of Representatives is the permanent political body and negotiating forum which analyses and approves all initiatives for fulfilling the aims of the Treaty.
Members: one permanent Representative of each member country with the right of one vote. Each Representative has a substitute. It meets every 15 days and its resolutions must have the affirmative vote of two thirds of the member countries
Its Regulation was approved by the Committee of Representatives' Resolution 1, on March 18th 1981, and modified later by Resolutions 184 and 234, of December 22nd 1993 and November 12th 1997, respectively.
The Committee of Representatives has one President and two Vice Presidents , who will substitute him, alternatively, when necessary, following the alphabetical order of the countries they represent, according to Article 6 of its Regulation.
The Committee is the permanent body of the Association and it has the following powers and duties:
-To promote the conclusion of regional scope agreements, under the terms of article 6 of the present Treaty and, for that purpose, to convene governmental meetings at least once a year with the following aims:
i) Give continuity to the activities of the new integration process;
ii) Evaluate and guide the operation of the process;
iii) Analyze and promote measures to attain more advanced mechanisms of integration; and
iv) Undertake sectoral and multisectoral negotiations with the participation of all member countries in order to reach regional scope agreements basically referred to tariff cuts;
- To adopt the measures necessary to implement the present Treaty and all its supplementary rules;
- To regulate the present Treaty;
- To perform the tasks entrusted to it by the Council and the Conference;
- To adopt the annual work program of the Association and its annual budget;
- To fix the contributions of member countries to the Association budget;
- To adopt, as proposed by the Secretary-General, the structure of the Secretariat;
- To convene the Council and the Conference;
- To represent the Association before third parties;
- To commend studies to the Secretariat;
- To submit recommendations to the Council and the Conference;
- To present reports on its activities to the Council;
- To propose formulae to solve issues brought forth by member countries claiming non-observance of some of the rules or principles of the present Treaty;
- To multilaterally assess partial agreements as may be drawn up by the countries under the terms of article 25 of the present Treaty;
- To create auxiliary bodies;
- To adopts its own Rules of Procedure;
- To take care of business of common interest not falling within the competence of the other bodies of the Association.
The Committee composed of a Permanent Representative of each member country with the right to one vote. Each Permanent Representative shall have a Deputy. It meets and adopt resolutions with the presence of two thirds of the member countries'
General Secretariat
The General Secretariat is the technical body of the ALADI. It carries out the diverse day-to-day work of the Association by proposing, evaluating, studying and managing, in order to achieve better the objectives of the Association. Secretariat staff is integrated by technical and administrative personnel with the Secretary-General at its head, supported by two Deputy Secretary-Generals. All these authorities are elected for a three year term, with the possibility of being reelected for three more years.
The Secretariat headed by a Secretary-General and composed of technical and administrative staff.
The Secretariat has the following powers and duties:
- To submit proposals to the corresponding Association bodies, through, the Committee, leading towards a better accomplishment of the objectives and duties of the Association;
- To carry out the necessary studies to fulfill its technical duties and those entrusted to it by the Council, the Conference and the Committee, and to perform the other activities provided for in the annual work program;
- To carry out studies and actions leading to proposals to member countries, through their Permanent Representatives, regarding conclusion of the agreements foreseen by the present Treaty, within the guide-lines established by the Council and the Conference;
- To represent the Association before international economic organization and institutions in order to deal with questions of common interest;
- To administer the Association assets and represent it for such purposes in public and private law acts and contracts;
- To request technical advice and cooperation of individuals and national and international organizations;
- To propose the creation of auxiliary bodies to the Committee;
- To process and furnish member countries, in a systematic and updated manner, statistical information and data on foreign trade regulation systems of member countries in order to facilitate the preparation and carrying out of negotiations within the various Association mechanisms, as well as the further utilization of the respective concessions;
- To analyze on its own initiative, for all countries, or at the request of the Committee, compliance of agreed commitments, and evaluate legal provisions of member countries which directly or indirectly alter concessions granted;
- To call meetings of non-governmental auxiliary bodies and coordinate their operation;
- To periodically evaluate the progress of the integration process and permanently follow up the activities undertaken by the Association and the commitments resulting from the agreements achieved within in framework of same;
- To organize and put into operation an Economic Promotion Unit for relatively less developed countries and carry out actions to obtain technical and financial resources, as well as studies and projects to comply with the promotion program. At the same time, to draw up an annual report on the advantages obtained from the system in favour of the relatively less developed countries;
- To prepare the Association's expenditure budget, for approval by the Committee, as well as such subsequent reforms which might be necessary;
- To prepare and present to the Committee the draft annual work programs;
- To comply with requests received from any of the political bodies of the Association; and
- To present an annual report to the Committee on the results of the application of the present Treaty and the legal provisions derived therefrom. The Secretary-General shall be appointed by the Council.
In the performance of their duties, the head of the technical body, as well as the technical and administrative staff, shall not seed or receive instructions from any Government or national or international organizations. They shall refrain from any attitude not consistent with their character as international officers.
Member countries pledge themselves to respect the international nature of the duties of the Secretary-General and Secretariat staff or of its engaged experts and consultants, and to abstain from influencing them in the performance of their duties.









Part 9
Pacific organizations
Chapter 23
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a group of Pacific Rim countries who meet with the purpose of improving economic and political ties. It holds annual meetings in each of the member countries and has standing committees on a wide range of issues, from communications to fisheries.
Currently, most countries with a coastline on the Pacific Ocean are members of the organization, with the exception of Colombia and Ecuador in South America, the six Central American countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica and Panama, Cambodia and North Korea in Asia and the Pacific Islands, such as Fiji, Tonga and Samoa. Guam has also been actively requesting a separate membership, citing the example of Hong Kong and Taiwan, but the request is objected by USA, which currently represents Guam.
The heads of government of all APEC members meet annually in a summit called "APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting" rotating in location among APEC's member economies. Due to pressure from the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China, commonly known as Taiwan, is not allowed to carry either of the names "Republic of China" or "Taiwan" but must be referred to as Chinese Taipei. The president of the Republic of China is not allowed to attend the summit and must send a ministerial-level official in economic affairs as his envoy.
History and development
In January 1989, Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke called for more effective economic cooperation across the Asia Pacific Region. This lead to the first meeting of APEC in Canberra, Australia in November, chaired by foreign minister, Gareth Evans. Attended by ministers from 12 countries, the meeting concluded with commitments for future annual meetings in Singapore and South Korea.
The first APEC Leaders' Meeting occurred in 1993 when U.S. President Bill Clinton, seeing it as a crucial vehicle to bring the derailed Uruguay Round of trade talks back on track, invited member economies' leaders to Blake Island, Washington. At Blake Island, Leaders called for continued reduction of trade and investment barriers, envisioning an "Asia-Pacific community" that promotes prosperity through cooperation. APEC's headquarters are located in Singapore.
APEC's stated "Bogor Goals" adopted in 1994 at the Bogor summit are aimed at free and open trade and investments by reducing tariff barrier to a level of between zero to five percent in the Asia-Pacific area for industrialized economies by 2010 and for developing economies by 2020.
In 1995, APEC established a business advisory body, called the APEC Business Advisory Council (ABAC), which consists of three business executives from each member economy.
In 1997 the APEC summit was in Vancouver, British Columbia. Great controversy arose when politicians instructed RCMP officers to use force and pepper spray against non-violent protesters. The protesters objected to the presence of dictators such as Indonesia's president Suharto.
APEC's push for a new round of trade negotiations and support for a program of trade capacity-building assistance at the 2001 summit in Shanghai, led to the successful launch of the Doha Development Agenda a few weeks later. Leaders also endorsed the U.S.-proposed 'Shanghai Accord' which emphasizes implementation of APEC's commitments to open markets, structural reform, and capacity building. As part of the accord, leaders committed to develop and implement APEC transparency standards, reduce trade transaction costs in the Asia-Pacific region by 5% over 5 years, and pursue trade liberalization policies relating to information technology goods and services.
In 2003, Jemaah Islamiah head Riduan Isamuddin, a.k.a. Hambali, was planning an attack against the October 2003 APEC summit in Bangkok. He was captured in the city of Ayutthaya, Thailand, near Bangkok by Thai Police on August 11, 2003, before he could finish planning his attack on the APEC summit.
In 2004, Chile became the first South American nation to host the summit. The agenda of the APEC 2004 year was focused on terrorism and commerce, small and medium enterprise development and contemplation of Free Trade Agreements and Regional Trade Agreements.
The 2005 edition was held in November in Busan, South Korea. The meeting focused on the current Doha trade round which is due to be discussed further in a World Trade Organization ministerial meeting in Hong Kong in December of the same year. Weeks earlier, trade negotiations in Paris had been held between various WTO members, including the US and the European Union. The talks centered on reducing agricultural trade barriers. The EU resisted substantial reductions in agricultural tariffs, which risked a meltdown of the process. In response, APEC urged the EU to agree to farm subsidy reduction. Aside from the meetings, peaceful protests against APEC were staged in Busan, but these didn't interfere with the APEC schedule.
Membership
APEC's 21 members
Founding members: Australia Brunei Canada Indonesia Japan Republic of Korea Malaysia New Zealand Philippines Singapore Thailand United States November 1991 China Hong Kong, China Chinese Taipei November 1993 Mexico Papua New Guinea November 1994 Chile November 1998 Peru Russia Vietnam





Chapter 24
Pacific Islands Forum
The Pacific Islands Forum is an inter-governmental consultative organ which aims to enhance cooperation between the independent countries of the Pacific Ocean and represent their interests. It was founded in 1971 as the South Pacific Forum; the name was changed in 2000 to better reflect the correct geographic locations of its member states both in the north and south Pacific.
Member states are: Australia, the Cook Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
The decisions of the Forum are implemented by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (PIFS), which grew out of the South Pacific Economic Cooperation bureau (SPEC). As well as its role in harmonising regional positions on various political and policy issues, the Forum Secretariat has technical programmes in economic development, transport and trade, and chairs the Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific (CROP).
New Zealand and Australia are much larger in population (with the exception of Papua New Guinea) and wealthier than the other small, poor, and in some cases outright impoverished island nations that make up the rest of the forum. They are significant aid donors and big markets for exports (for instance, through a concessional tariff deal on textiles exports from Fiji to Australia). Australia's population is around twice that of the other 15 members combined and it's economy more than five times larger. In Papua New Guinea (in Bougainville) and the Solomons, Australian and New Zealand have recently conducted peacekeeping/stabilization military operations. These military assistance/intervention are legitimized by the Biketawa Declaration, which was adopted at the 31st Summit of Pacific Islands Forum, held at Kiribati in October 2000.
The aim of Pacific Regional Trade Agreement is to boost trade between the island nations of the Pacific. Australia and New Zealand are associate members of PARTA.